is defined as the spontaneous

disintegration of certain atomic

nuclei accompanied by the
emission of alpha particles,
beta particles or gamma
radiation.

CHAPTER 28: Radioactivity

(2 Hours)

1
Learning Outcome:
28.1 Radioactive decay (1 1/2 hours)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Explain α, β+, βˉ and γ decays.
 State decay law and use
dN
 N
dt
 Define activity, A and decay constant, .
 Derive and use

N  N 0 e  t OR A  A0 e  t
 Define half-life and use
ln 2
T1/ 2 
 2
 28.1 Radioactive decay
Radioactivity is a phenomenon in which an unstable nuclei
undergoes spontaneous decay as a result of which a
new nucleus is formed and energy in the form of
radiation is released
 The radioactive decay is a spontaneous reaction that is
unplanned, cannot be predicted and independent of
physical conditions (such as pressure, temperature) and
chemical changes.
 This reaction is random reaction because the probability
of a nucleus decaying at a given instant is the same for all
the nuclei in the sample.
 Radioactive radiations are emitted when an unstable
nucleus decays. The radiations are alpha particles, beta
particles and gamma-rays.
3
28.1.1 Alpha particle ()
 An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons.
 It is identical to a helium nucleus and its symbol is
4
2 He OR 2 α
4

 It is positively charged particle and its value is +2e with mass

of 4.002603 u.
 When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay it loses four nucleons,
two of which are protons, thus the reaction can be represented
by general equation below:
A
ZX  A 4
Z 2 Y  2 He 
4
Q
(Parent) (Daughter) ( particle)

• Alpha particles can penetrate a sheet of paper.

4
 α particle

parent

daughter

Examples of  decay :

218
84 Po  214
82 Pb  2 He  Q
4 226
88 Ra  222
86 Rn  2 He  Q
4

230
90 Th 226
88 Ra  2 He  Q
4 238
92 U  234
90 Th  2 He  Q
4

5
28.1.2 Beta particle (β)
• Two types : -
a) Beta minus , β
+
b) Beta plus , β

• A beta particle has the same mass and charge as an

electron.
• Beta particles can penetrate a few mm of Al and their
velocity is high (v ~ c).

6
 Beta minus (β )-negatively charge.
• Also called as negatron or electron.
• Symbol; -
β or
0
1  or 0
e
1
• It is produced when one of the neutrons in the parent
nucleus decays into a proton, an electron and an
antineutrino.

massless, neutral

7
• In beta-minus decay, an electron is emitted, thus the mass
number does not charge but the charge of the parent nucleus
increases by one as shown below :

A
Z X  Y A
Z 1 
0
1 e  Q
(Parent) (Daughter) ( particle)

• Examples of  minus decay :

234
90 Th234
91 Pa  1 e  Q
0

234
91 Pa 234
92 U  1 e  Q
0

214
83 Bi 214
84 Po  1 e  Q
0

8
 +
Beta plus (β )- positively charge.
• Also called as positron or antielectron.
• Symbol; +
β or
0
1 or e 0
1
• It is produced when one of the protons in the parent
nucleus decays into a neutron, a positron and
a neutrino.

massless,neutral

9
• In beta-plus decay, a positron is emitted, this time the
charge of the parent nucleus decreases by one as shown
below :

A
Z X  A
Z 1Y 
0
1 e  Q
(Daughter) (Positron)
(Parent)

• Example of  plus decay :

12
7 N 126C 10e  v  Q

10
28.1.3 Gamma ray ()
 Gamma rays are high energy photons (electromagnetic
radiation).
 Emission of gamma ray does not change the parent nucleus
into a different nuclide, since neither the charge nor the
nucleon number is changed.
 A gamma ray photon is emitted when a nucleus in an excited
state makes a transition to a ground state.
 Examples of  decay are :

218
84 Po  214
82 Pb  2 He  γ
4

 Gamma ray
234
91 Pa  234
92 U  1 e  γ
0

208 
81Ti  81Ti  γ
208

 It is uncharged (neutral) ray and zero mass.

 The differ between gamma-rays and x-rays of the same
wavelength only in the manner in which they are produced;
gamma-rays are a result of nuclear processes, whereas x-
rays originate outside the nucleus. 11
 28.1.4 Comparison of the properties between alpha
particle, beta particle and gamma ray.
 Table 28.1 shows the comparison between the radioactive
radiations.
Alpha Beta Gamma
Charge +2e 1e OR +1e 0 (uncharged)
Deflection by
electric and Yes Yes No
magnetic fields
Ionization power Strong Moderate Weak

Penetration power Weak Moderate Strong

Ability to affect a
photographic plate Yes Yes Yes
Ability to produce
Yes Yes Yes
Table 28.1 fluorescence 12
 28.1.5 Decay constant ()
 Law of radioactive decay states:
 dN 
For a radioactive source, the decay rate    is directly
 dt 
proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei N
remaining in the source.
i.e.  dN 
  N Negative sign means the number of
 dt  remaining nuclei decreases with time

dN
 N (28.1)
dt Decay constant
 Rearranging the eq. (28.1):
dN
decay rate
   dt 
N number of remaining radioactiv e nuclei
Hence the decay constant is defined as the probability that a
radioactive nucleus will decay in one second. Its unit is s1.
13
 The decay constant is a characteristic of the radioactive nuclei.

 Rearrange the eq. (28.1), we get

dN
 dt (28.2)
N
At time t=0, N=N0 (initial number of radioactive nuclei in the
sample) and after a time t, the number of remaining nuclei is
N. Integration of the eq. (28.2) from t=0 to time t :
N dN t
N0 N
  dt
0 
ln N NN 0
  t 0
t

N
ln   λt Exponential law of
N0 radioactive decay
N  N 0 e  λt (28.3)
14
The number of nuclei N as function of time t

 λt
N  N 0e

Half-life is the time required for the number of

radioactive nuclei to decrease to half the original
number (No)

15
From N  N0 e t
No
When t  T1 and N 
2 2
 T 1
Hence N0
 N0 e 2
2  T 1
1
e 2
2 T 1
2e 2
T 1
ln 2  ln e 2

ln 2 0.693
T1  
2 λ λ

16
 The units of the half-life are second (s), minute (min), hour
(hr), day (d) and year (y). Its unit depend on the unit of decay
constant.
 Table 28.2 shows the value of half-life for several isotopes.

Isotope Half-life
238
92 U
4.5  109 years
226
88 Ra 1.6  103 years
210
884 Po
138 days
234
90Th 24 days
222
86 Rn 3.8 days
214
83 Bi 20 minutes

Table 28.2
17
28.1.6 Activity of radioactive sample (A)
 dN 
 is defined as the decay rate   of a radioactive sample.
 dt 
 Its unit is number of decays per second.
 Other units for activity are curie (Ci) and becquerel (Bq) – S.I.
unit.
 Unit conversion:
1 Ci  3.7  1010 decays per second
1 Bq  1 decay per second
 Relation between activity (A) of radioactive sample and time t :
dN
 From the law of radioactive decay :  N
dN dt
and definition of activity : A 
dt
18
  Thus
 t
A  N and N  N 0e

A   N 0 e t 
  N 0 e t and A0  N 0
 λt
A  A0 e (28.4)

Activity at time t Activity at time, t =0

19
Example 28.1.1 :
A radioactive nuclide A disintegrates into a stable nuclide B. The
half-life of A is 5.0 days. If the initial number of nuclide A is 1.01020,
calculate the number of nuclide B after 20 days.
Solution : T1/ 2  5.0 days; N 0  1.010 ; t  20 days
20

A BQ
The decay constant is given by

The number of remaining nuclide A is

N  N 0e t

The number of nuclide A that have decayed is

Therefore the number of nuclide B formed is

20
Example 28.1.2 :
80% of a radioactive substance decays in
4.0 days. Determine
i. the decay constant,
ii. the half-life of the substance.

21
Solution :
At time
The number of remaining nuclei is

i. By applying the exponential law of radioactive decay, thus the

decay constant is
N  N 0e t

ii. The half-life of the substance is

22
Example 28.1.3 :
A thorium-228 isotope which has a half-life of 1.913 years decays
by emitting alpha particle into radium-224 nucleus. Calculate
a. the decay constant.
b. the mass of thorium-228 required to decay with activity of
12.0 Ci.
c. the number of alpha particles per second for the decay of 15.0 g
thorium-228.
(Given the Avogadro constant, NA =6.02  1023 mol1)

Solution : T1/ 2  1.913 y  1.913 365 24  60  60 
 6.03107 s
a. The decay constant is given by
ln 2
T1/ 2 

23
Solution :
b. By using the unit conversion ( Ci decay/second ),
1 Ci  3.7 1010 decays per second
the activity is

Since A  N then

A
N 

If 6.02  1023 nuclei of Th-228 has a mass of 228 g thus

3.86  1019 nuclei of Th-228 has a mass of

24
Solution :
c. If 228 g of Th-228 contains of 6.02  1023 nuclei thus

15.0 g of Th-228 contains of

Therefore the number of emitted alpha particles per second is

given by
dN Ignored it.
A  N
dt

25
Example 28.1.4 :
A sample of radioactive material has an activity of 9.00 x
12
10 Bq. The material has a half-life of 80.0 s. How long
12
will it take for the activity to fall to 2.00 x 10 Bq ?

Solution

A  A0 e  λt ln 2 ln 2
T1  
A λ t1/ 2
 e  t
2

Ao
 A 
ln 
 A  Ao   174 s
ln   t  t 
 Ao  
26
Example 28.1.5 :

 λt
N  N 0e
ln 2

t1/ 2
N = 25% , No = 100%

t =34.6 min

(1.72 h)

27
Learning Outcome:

28.2 Radioisotope as tracers (1/2 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be
able to:
 Explain the application of radioisotopes as
tracers.

28
 28.2 Radioisotope as tracers
• Radioisotope (unstable isotope) is an isotope
which is exhibits radioactivity (known as radioactive
isotope).

a) Blood volume

• The volume of blood in the bloodstream, V2 can

be determined by using dilution method as given
below.
 A2 
V2   V1 A1 A2

 A1  V1 V2

29
 A1 A2
where 
V1 V2

A1 = activity of the blood drawn from the patient

A2 = activity of the blood in the bloodstream
V1 = volume of the blood drawn from the patient
V2 = volume of blood in the bloodstream of the patient

A1
 activity per unit volume of the blood drawn from the patient
V1
A2
 activity per unit volume of the blood in the blood stream
V2

30
Example 28.2.1

A small volume of a solution which contains a radioactive

4
isotope of sodium Na-24 has an activity of 1.5 x 10 Bq.
The solution is injected into the bloodstream of a patient.
The half-life of the sodium isotope
3 is 15 hours. After 30
hours, the activity of 1.0 cm of blood is measured and
found to be 0.50 Bq. Estimate the volume of blood in the
patient.

31
Solution 28.2.1
A2  Ao e  t
A2  (1.5 10 4 )e (ln 2 /15)( 30)
A2  3.75 103 Bq

Activity per unit volume  Activit y per unit volume

of blood in the patient of blood drawn from the patient
A2 A1

V2 V1
3.75  103 0.5

V2 110 6
V2  7.5 10 3 m3

32
b) Detecting leaks in underground pipes.
The exact position of an underground pipe can be located
if a small quantity of radioactive liquid is added to the
liquid being carried by the pipe.

Geiger counter can be used to detect the leaks.

Any leaks would be detected by an increase in radiation
reading .

The soil close to the leak becomes radioactive.

The short-lived
radioisotope is used to avoid from the
permanent contamination of the soil.

33
c) Detecting brain tumors.

• Technitium-99 is a gamma emitter (half-life 6 hours) and is

used as a medical tracer.

• When injected into the blood stream, 99 Tc will not be

absorbed by the brain, because of the blood-brain barrier.

• However, tumors do not have this barrier.

• Thus, brain tumors readily absorb the 99 Tc.
• These tumors then show as gamma-ray
emitters on detectors external to the body.

• The short-lived radioisotope is used so that it

can quickly eliminate from the body.

34
 Good luck
For
2nd semester examination

35