Prime University

114/116, Mazar Road, Mirpur-1, Dhaka-1216

Course Code: PHY

121
Course Title:
Physics II
 Reference Book

 David Halliday and Robert Resnick,

Physics for Science and Engineering,

Volume II.
Baiser, Concept of Modern Physics.
Subrahmanyam, Atomic and Nuclear
Physics.
B. L. Theraja, Electrical technology.
Radioactivity
 Outline
Radioactivity
Types of Radioactivity
Units of Radioactivity
Radioactive Decay Law
Half-life
Uses of Radioactivity
 Radioactivity
• The nuclei of naturally occurring
heavy
elements like Th, Ra and
unstable U, Po are keep
spontaneously
andinvisible rays
on or radiations
emitting
(α, β, γ -rays) and give more stable
elements.
 Radioactivity

• These heavy are called

elements
radioactive elements.
• The property of emitting these rays
is called radioactivity of the
elements.
 Radioactivity cont….

• It is the nucleus of an atom of an element

which spontaneously disintegrates to emit
α, β or γ-rays.
• The rays emitted by radioactive element are
called radioactive rays
Thus radioactivity can
be defined as:-
The phenomenon in which the nucleus of the
atom of an element undergoes spontaneous
and uncontrollable disintegration (or decay)
and emit α, β or γ-rays.
 Also, radioactivity can be
defined as:-
• Is the of
Process
disintegration of spontaneous
thethe
heavy elements with nuclei
emission of certain typesofof
radiations.
 Radioactivity cont….

The emitted α, β or γ-rays from unstable nuclei are

collectively called ionizing radiations.

Depending on how the nucleus loses this excess

energy either a lower energy atom of the same
form will result, or a completely different
nucleus and atom can be formed.
 Radioactivity cont….
Ionization
is the addition or removal of an electron to create
an ion.

Ionizing radiation

is any type of particle (α, β) or electromagnetic

wave (γ) that carries enough energy to ionize or
remove electrons from an atom.

.
 Radioactivity cont….

• These radiations are of such high energy

that when they interact with materials, they
can remove electrons from the atoms in
the material. This effect is the reason why
ionizing radiation is hazardous to health
• Radioactivity is of the following two
types which are:

a) Natural radioactivity

b)Artificial Radioactivity
 Natural Radioactivity

is the process of spontaneous (i.e. without

external means, by it self) disintegration of the
nuclei of heavy elements with the emission of
radiation.

-these are unstable nuclei found in nature.

Natural radioactivity
 Natural radioactivity cont…..

• All heavy elements above Z=82 show the

phenomenon of radioactivity. the emission
of radiation changes the structure of the
nucleus and transforms the atom into a
lighter atom.
 Natural radioactivity cont…..

• The heavy element are unstable

therefore they disintegrate to acquire a
more stable state.
 continue
• Since radioactivity is practically unaffected by
temperature, pressure and other conditions, we
conclude that it is a nuclear property. Therefore
α,β-particles and γ-rays are emitted from the
nucleus.
• It may be noted that electrons revolving around
the nucleus are not responsible for radioactivity.
Artificial Radioactivity
• Is the process in which a stable
(non-
radioactive) nucleus is changed
unstable into an (radioactive)
bombarding it with nucleus by
appropriate
atomic
projectiles like α, neutron, proton.
Example of Artificial
radioactivity
 The differences natural
between and artificial
radioactivity
Natural radioactivity
Is spontaneous, since in
Artificial radioactivity
Is not spontaneous, since in it
natural the
radioactivity, the nuclei of nuclei of the atoms have to
heavy be
atom disintegrate on their bombarded by fast moving particles
own
accord, forming slightly lighter and like α, neutrons, protons, deuterons.
more stable nuclei and
emitting
α,β,ᵞ radiations.

Is uncontrolled and hence it can not be Can be controlled by controlling

the
slowed down or accelerated by speed of the bombarding particles used
any
Units of Radioactivity
 Types of Radioactive Rays

• There are three types of radioactive

rays which are:-
– Alpha (α)

– Beta (β)

– Gamma (ᵞ) rays

 Alpha ( 4 He)
2

• An alpha particle a helium

is
nucleus whose mass number is 4
and nuclear charge (Atomic
number) is +2.
 Alpha- Particle Decay

• For proton- rich heavy nuclei, a

possible mode of decay to a more
stable is by alpha particle emission.
 Alpha Decay

A A-4 4

Z
X Z-2
Y + 2
He

unstable atom alpha particle

more stable atom
 Alpha Decay
222
226 Rn
88
Ra 86

2
He
 Beta Decay
A beta particle (Denoted by 𝛽) is a fast moving electron
which is emitted from the nucleus of an atom
undergoing radioactive decay.

Beta decay occurs when a neutron changes into

a proton and an electron.
 Beta Decay

• Many neutron-rich radioactive nuclides

decay by changing a neutron in the parent
nucleus into a proton and emitting an
energetic electron.
 Beta Decay
As a result of beta decay, the nucleus has one
less neutron, but one extra proton.

The atomic number, Z, increases by 1 and the

mass number, A, stays the same.
 Beta Decay
• Many different names are applied to this
decay process:
• Electron decay, beta minus decay, negatron
decay, negative electron decay, negative
beta decay or simply Beta Decay
 Beta Decay
218
218 At
84
Po 85

0
-1 
 Beta Decay
A A

Z
X Z+1
Y + 0

-1

218 218

84
Po 85
Rn 0

-1

+
 Gamma Decay
Gamma rays are not charged particles like  and 
particles.

Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation with

high frequency.

When atoms decay by emitting  or  particles to form a

new atom, the nuclei of the new atom formed may still
have too much energy to be completely stable.

This excess energy is emitted as gamma rays (gamma ray

photons have energies of ~ 1 x 10-12 J).
 X rays
• X Rays are electromagnetic waves /
photons emitted not from the nucleus, but
normally emitted by energy changes in
electrons. These energy changes are either in
electron orbital shells that surround an atom
or in the process of slowing down such as in
an X-ray machine.
Properties of α, β and ᵞ rays
Radiation Penetration
Ability
 Disintegration
constant or
Decay Constant (K)
 Decay Constant
(K) a radioactive element A (i.e. at t =
• Suppose
0
be 𝑁0 ) disintegrates into another substance B.
• Now as the time passes, the element A
disintegrates and hence the amount of A goes
on decreasing while that of B goes on
increasing.
 Decay Constant (K)
• Suppose that after t time, the amount of A left
undisintegrated is N.

• ( 𝑁0 - N ) is the amount of A that

gets disintegrated into B after time t.
 Decay Constant (K)
• Now if a small amount, 𝑑𝑁 of A
gets disintegrated into B in a small time 𝑑𝑡,
then thea disintegration (i.e. rate of decrease) of
rate of
A into B is equal to − 𝑑𝑁 which is
𝑑𝑡
proportional the amount of A
to
undisintegrated (N). left
 Decay Constant (K)
− 𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑡 ∝ N or − 𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑡 = KN

Where

K = is amount of proportionality which is

called disintegration or decay
constant
𝑑𝑁
- 𝑁 = 𝐾. 𝑑𝑡 …………..
(i)
 Decay Constant
(K)
• Decay Constant (K)

Can be defined as the fraction of the total amount

of the radioactive substance 𝑑𝑁
which
disintegrates in unit time. 𝑁

K is expressed in 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒−1 units i.e. in 𝑠−1, 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1,

ℎ𝑟𝑠−1, 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠−1, 𝑦𝑟𝑠−1
 Decay Constant (K)
• Integrating equation (i) over limit 𝑁0 and N (for

the left hand side) and 0 and t (for the right hand
side), we get;
𝑁 𝑑𝑁 𝑡
=- 𝐾𝑑𝑡
𝑁0 𝑁
0
𝑁
𝐼𝑛 𝑁
= - Kt …………………… (ii)
0
Decay Constant (K)

𝑁
=
�
�
−
�
�
�
�
𝑁0
 Radioactive Decay Kinetics - plot
Variation of N as a function of
Number of
time t radioactive nuclei
N decrease
N N =N o
exponentially with
- time as indicated by
o
Also A = A e
o e the graph here.
t
- t
As a result, the
radioactivity vary in
the same manner.
t
Note N=A
 No = Ao

Radioactive Decays 99
 Decay Constant and Half-life
Variation of N as a function of time t

Ln(N or A) No
N
N = No e - t
Also A = A o e - t
ln N1 – ln N2
 = ––––––––––– t
t1 – t2

t½ *  = ln 2 Be able to apply
these
equations!
N = No e– t
A = Ao e – t
ln N = ln No – 
t t
Radioactive Decays t½ A = ln Ao – 
ln 100

t
HALF-
LIFE
(𝑇1 2)
 Half-Life
• The half-life of a radioactive nuclide
– Is the time taken for half the present to
nuclei disintegrate.
If the half-life is represented by 𝑻𝟏 , then when t = 𝑻𝟏 ,
𝟐
𝟐

𝑁 = 𝑁 𝑜 2, and therefore by equation 𝑁 = 𝑁0𝑒−𝐾𝑡

𝑁0 −𝐾 1
2= 0 𝑇 2

𝑁 𝑒
∴ 𝑇1 2 = 0.693
𝐾
Half-life

• Most radioactive
materials decay in
a series of
reactions.
• Radon gas comes from
the decay of uranium
in the soil.
• Uranium (U-238)
decays to radon-222
 Radioactivity - 238U radioactive decay series
The Decay Path of 4n + 2 or 238U Family 234
U 234
238
U
Pa
234
Th
230
Th

226
Ra

222
Rn
218
 decay
210 214 At
Po Po
210 214
218
Po Major route
Bi Bi
214
Pb
206 206 210
Pb Tl Pb 210Tl Minor route
206
Hg

 decay

Radioactive Decays 104

Decay Constant for some Elements
 ACTIVITY
• Activity is the rate of disintegration in
a radioactive substance.

𝑑𝑁
Activity of a substance, A = - 𝑑𝑡

The minus sign shows that the activity decreases

with the passage of time.
 ACTIVITY
• According to decay law, the rate of disintegration
is directly proportion to the number of atoms
present. i.e.
𝑑𝑁
−
𝑑𝑡
∝𝑁
𝑑𝑁
− =
𝑑𝑡
𝐾𝑁
∴ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐴 = 𝐾 𝑁
Medical Sterilization Machines
 In
Agriculture
• In agriculture, radioactive materials are used to
improve food crops, preserve food, and control
insect pests.
• They are also used to measure soil moisture
content, erosion rates, salinity, and the efficiency
of fertilizer uptake in the soil.
 Application of radiation during
protection of Agricultural
materials
 Environment
• Radioactive are used as tracers to measure
materials
environmental processes, including the monitoring of silt, water
and pollutants.
• They are used to measure and map effluent and pollution
discharges from factories and sewerage plants, and the
movement of sand around harbours, rivers and bays.
Radioactive materials used for such purposes have short half-
lives and decay to background levels within days.
 In Industry

• Radioactive materials are used in industrial

radiography, civil engineering, materials
analysis, measuring devices, process control in
factories, oil and mineral exploration, and
checking oil and gas pipelines for leaks and
weaknesses.
 In industry…
• Examples on the uses of industrial
measuring devices which containing
radioactive materials are:-

(i) They are used for testing the

moisture content of soils during road
construction.
 In industry….
(ii)The are used to measure the thickness
of paper and plastics during manufacturing.

(iii)To checking the height of fluid when

filling bottles in factories.

NB: Radioactive materials are even used

in devices designed to detect explosives.
 In Our Homes
One of the most common uses of radioactive materials in
the home is in smoke detectors. Most of these life-saving
devices contain tiny amounts of radioactive material
which make the detectors sensitive to smoke.

The radiation dose to the occupants of the house is very

much less than that from background radiation.