PHYSICAL AND

CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES
General Inorganic Chemistry

Prepared by: ENGR. LOWEN B. CIAR, RChT

INTRODUCTION
Chemistry
Study of matter and its composition,
properties, and transformations
including the energy changes
accompanying it.

MATTER
anything that has mass and occupies
space.
Properties of Matter
A. Intensive Properties
◦ Independent on the amount of
material
◦ Ex: temperature, freezing point,
conductivity

B. Extensive Properties
◦ Dependent on the amount of
material
◦ Ex: length, volume
Classification of Matter
BASED ON PHYSICAL STATES
Classification of Matter
BASED ON COMPOSITION
Note: If there is a fixed amount of water (7
H2O or nH2O), it is therefore a COMPOUND.
Classification of Matter
COLLOIDS
Can be distinguished using Tyndall effect
(scattering of light by sufficiently large
particles)
 Billiard Board Model "an atom cannot be
separated into components"

The Atom
Plum Pudding Model - The negatively charge
component is scattered into positive cloud.

Ball Point Experiment - an atom is composed mainly

of empty space.

Planetary Model - electron revolves

around the nucleus.

Quantum Mechanical Model - You cannot pinpoint

the actual location of the electron.
Nucleus Neutron acts as glue for our protons to be compacted.

As the atom increases the number of neutrons shall also increase.

The nucleus is made up of nucleons

(protons and neutrons), held by strong
nuclear force. It is hard to compressed positively charge
ions, that's why we are adding neutron to
compact them
Nucleus
Nuclide Notation

A
ZX
X-A

Where
neutrons + protons

A = mass number (number of nucleons)

Z = atomic number (number of protons)
Neutrons = A-Z
 Isotopes and Isobars
Atoms of the same element but differ in
number of neutrons

Stability
Tritium <Deuterium <Protium
Protium
Tritium holds more nucleons
(neutrons+protons) making it
unstable.

Deuterium

Tritium
Isotopes and Isobars
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE
Average molar mass of all isotopes
Isotopes
Nucleus
The binding energy is the energy required
to separate an atom into electrons,
neutrons, and protons. It is quantified
using Einstein’s equation:

E = ∆mc 2

∆m mass defect
= total mass of individual particles in the atom
− actual mass of the atom
Nuclear Binding Energy

c (speed of light) = 3* 10^8 m/s

Example
What is the binding energy (per nucleon)
for Fe-56 (55.9349) in MeV? You can find the values of
E = mc^2 =[(26mp + 30 mn + 26 me)-matom] * c^2 constants (electron, proton,
neutron on your calculator)

Answer:
8.78
 Radioactive Decay
Types of Radioactive Decay
Type Particle/Radiation Involved Example

1. Alpha Decay Alpha particle: 42𝛼 or 42𝐻𝑒 218

84𝑃𝑜 → 214
82𝑃𝑏 + 42𝛼

0 0 214 214
2. Beta Decay Beta particle: ;1𝛽 or ;1𝑒 82𝑃𝑏 → 83𝐵𝑖 + ;10𝛽

3. Gamma Emission Gamma ray: 00𝛾 240

94𝑃𝑢
∗ → 240
94𝑃𝑢 + 00𝛾

0 0 8
4. Positron Emission Positron: :1𝛽 or :1𝑒 5𝐵 → 84𝐵𝑒 + :10𝛽

0
Electron: ;1𝑒 and Gamma ray: 80 0 80
5. Electron Capture 0 38𝑆𝑟 ;1𝑒 → 37𝑅𝑏 + 00𝛾
0𝛾
 Radioactive Decay
Prediction of the Type of Decay
These are numbers that are magically stable isotopes.

Magic Numbers belt of stability/stability belt

2, 8, 20, 28
50, 82, 114, 126

The gap increases as Z increases which implies that as

the numbers of protons increases, the number of
neutrons needed to bind them also increases.
Balancing Nuclear
Reactions
Example
1. 254 118 132 1
98Cf → 46Pd + 52Te + ___ 0n
2. 73Li + 10n → 31H + 10n + ____
3. Positron emission from K-37

Answers:
1. 4
2. 4
2He
37
3. 19K → 01β + 37
18Ar
Kinetics of Decay
Radioactive decays are first order
reactions.
Kinetics of Decay
Half-life
The time wherein the original
amount is reduced to half.
Kinetics of Decay
Activity (a)
-number of disintegrations per second;
depends on the current amount of atoms

a = kN

Units:
1 Bq (Becquerel) = 1 disintegration/s
1 Ci (Curie) = 3.7x1010 Bq
Kinetics of Decay

Example
1. The half-life of I-131 is 8.1 days. How
long will it take for three-fourths of a
sample to decay?

Answer:
16.2 days
Kinetics of Decay

Example
2. U-238 has a half-life of 4.47 billion years.
What percentage of it will remain after
13.4 billion years?

Answer:
12.5%
Kinetics of Decay

Example
3. Ra-226 has a half-life of 1600 years.
What is the activity (mCi) of a 10-mg
sample?

Answer:
9.9
Electronic Structure
of the Atom
Orbit

BOHR MODEL
The electron in a
hydrogen atom
moves around the
nucleus only in
certain allowed
circular orbits.
Electronic Structure
of the Atom
Electronic Structure
of the Atom
Electronic Structure
of the Atom
Max Planck – blackbody radiation;
energy emitted by matter is quantized
(discrete amount) and directly
proportional to frequency.

Planck’s Equation:
 Electronic Structure
of the Atom
Some atoms emit light when exposed to
flame (high energy). This is a result of the
movement of electrons from a higher to
lower energy level which is
accompanied of the release of energy.

Rydberg Equation:
Ground State - Most stable configuration
Electronic Structure
of the Atom
Electronic Structure
of the Atom
Electronic Structure
of the Atom
If the electron of a hydrogen-like
atom goes from the second to first
shell, what is the amount of energy
released?

Answer:
1.63x10-18 J
 Quantum Mechanical
Model
Probabilistic Approach
As the light energy increases, the tendency that you can find an atom electron there also increases.

Intensity is also
deemed as orbital

No light intensity is
called Nodes.
Quantum Numbers

Angular Quantum Number

Quantum Numbers
Electron Configuration
Electron Configuration
Trends in Atomic Properties
 Trends in Atomic Properties

• Effective nuclear charge, 𝐙𝐞𝐟𝐟 was

defined by Slater as the measure of
the nuclear attraction for an
electron:

𝐙𝐞𝐟𝐟 = 𝐙 − 𝐒
where:
𝐙 - atomic number, number of protons in the nucleus
𝐒 - shielding constant, based from the number of electrons
between nucleus and electron of interest
 Early Beginnings
1829 Johann Dobereiner proposed the Law of Triads.

1863 John Newlands proposed the Law of Octaves.

 Early Beginnings
1829 Johann Dobereiner proposed the Law of Triads.

1863 John Newlands proposed the Law of Octaves.

 Early Beginnings
Lothar Meyer recognized periodic behavior
1864
among elements.

1869 Dmitri Mendeleev formulated the Periodic Law.

 Early Beginnings
Lothar Meyer recognized periodic behavior
1864
among elements.

1869 Dmitri Mendeleev formulated the Periodic Law.

Modern Periodic Table
Modern Periodic Table

Eicosagens

Crystallogens
Chemical
Bonding
Chemical Bonding

non polar Covalent Bonds Polar Covalent Bonds

Chemical Bonding
Electronegativity
Ability of electrons to attract electrons in
a bond.
Atoms

Pauling's Scale
Chemical Bonding
Electronegativity
Ability of electrons to attract electrons in
a bond.
Non Polar Covalent Bond Polar Covalent Bond Ionic Bonding
Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bonding
Electrostatic attraction of cations and
anions which are formed due to transfer
of electrons.
Chemical Bonding
Covalent Bonding
Sharing of electrons; formed by the
overlap of orbitals of the atoms
Chemical Bonding
Covalent Bonding
Sharing of electrons; formed by the
overlap of orbitals of the atoms
Chemical Bonding
Polarity of Bonds
Dipole Moments

Non Polar Molecules Polar Molecules

Chemical Bonding
Properties of Bonds
Chemical Bonding
Properties of Bonds
Polarity of Molecules
A molecule is polar if there is a net
dipole moment.
Polarity of Molecules
General steps to determine the
polarity of a molecule

1. Draw the most plausible Lewis

structure.
2. Determine the proper shape of
molecule using VSEPR Theory.
3. Determine the individual dipole
moments then get the net.
Polarity of Molecules
Lewis Structure
1. Elements
Polarity of Molecules
Lewis Structure
2. Ionic Compounds
Polarity of Molecules
Lewis Structure
3. Molecules

Ex: NO3-
a. Central atom has the least EN.
Polarity of Molecules
Lewis Structure
3. Molecules

Ex: NO3-
b. Complete the octet/duet of strict
followers (H, N, O, and F) of terminal
atoms first then central atom.
Polarity of Molecules
Lewis Structure
3. Molecules

Ex: NO3-
c. Adjust the number of bonds in
order to get the most desirable set
of formal charge.
Polarity of Molecules
Lewis Structure
Formal Charge – apparent charge
of an atom in a molecule.

𝑭𝑪 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
−
2
Polarity of Molecules
Geometry of Molecules

NOTE: The lone pair – lone pair repulsion is

greater than the lone pair – bonding
pair; and lone pair – bonding pair
repulsion is greater than bonding pair –
bonding pair.
Polarity of Molecules
Geometry of Molecules

Arises from the Valence Shell Electron

Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory which
states that the spaces between
electron clouds should be maximized
in order to minimize the repulsion.

Lone Pairs
Bonding electrons
Polarity of Molecules
Geometry of Molecules

LP-LP>LP-BP>BP-BP
AX2

AX2E

AX3

AX3E AX2E2

AX4
Naming and Formula Writing of
Compounds
A. Ionic Compounds
1. Binary
2. Polyvalent cations
3. Polyatomic ions
B. Covalent Compounds
C. Acids
D. Common Names
Ionic Compounds
MONATOMIC IONS
 Ionic Compounds

Lower Charge: -OUS

Higher Charge -IC
Ionic Compounds
POLYATOMIC IONS
Covalent Compounds
Use prefixes

No. of atoms Greek prefix

1 mono-
2 di-
3 tri-
4 tetra-
5 penta-
6 hexa-
Covalent Compounds
Use prefixes
Acids

Ending of Acid Name Example

Anion
-ide Hydro- -ic acid HCl – hydrochloric
acid
-ite -ous acid HNO2 – nitrous
acid
-ate -ic acid H2SO4 – sulfuric
acid
Common Names
For general reference of names and
formula, refer to:

TAB GUIDE:
Table 2-1 PCEH 7th and 8th ed.
Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction (IMFA)
Van der Waals Forces
The collective term for all the interactions
of all the molecules.

A. London Dispersion Force (LDF)

-temporary or instantaneous dipole
-exists in all molecules and atoms
Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction (IMFA)
Factors that affect LDF
1. Molar Mass - direct
2. Arrangement – more linear, stronger
LDF.

Ex: Arrange the following in increasing LDF

n-butane, methylpropane, chlorine,
methane, hydrogen, xenon

H2 < CH4 < methylpropane < n-butane < Cl2 < Xe

Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction (IMFA)
B. Dipole-dipole Interaction (DDI)
-exhibited by polar molecules
-permanent dipole
-generally stronger than LDF
Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction (IMFA)

Ion-dipole Interaction
(not technically an IMFA)
Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction (IMFA)
C. Hydrogen Bonding
-special type of DDI
-present if H is bonded to a highly
electronegative atom (F, O, N)
Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction (IMFA)
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ASSESSMENT
1. If the difference in the molar masses
are significantly large, then LDF will
dominate.

2. If the difference in the molar masses

are not significantly large, then DDI will
dominate.

3. Hydrogen bond will generally

dominate.
Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction (IMFA)

Example
Arrange the following in increasing IMFA.
N2 F2 NOCl Cl2 CCl4 H2O

Answer:
N2 < F2 < Cl2 < NOCl < CCl4 < H2O
Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction (IMFA)
Some properties that are affected
by IMFA.
Directly proportional
◦ Boiling/Melting point
◦ Heat of Vaporization/Fusion
◦ Viscosity
◦ Surface Tension
Inversely proportional
◦ Vapor Pressure
STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry
Percentage Composition
Mass percentage of an element in the
compound.

Example:
Determine the percentage of all the
elements in acetone.
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry
Empirical Formula
Simplest formula to represent the
composition of a compound; can be
determined from percentage
composition data.
Stoichiometry
Example:
Analysis showed that the percentage
composition of a liquid sample is 84.1%
C and 15.9% H. What is the empirical
formula of the compound? If the actual
molar mass of the compound is 114.2
g/mol, what is its molecular formula?

Answers: C4H9 and C8H18

Stoichiometry
Chemical Reactions
Stoichiometry
Chemical Reactions
Stoichiometry
Chemical Stoichiometry
Shows the quantitative molar relationship
between the reactants and products.

Consider the reaction

It can be said that 2 moles of H2 will react

with 1 mole O2 to form 2 moles of H2O.
Stoichiometry
LIMITING REACTANT (LR)
◦ Dictates/limits the amount of product
formed.
◦ Gets entirely consumed in a reaction.

EXCESS REACTANT (ER)

◦ Does not get entirely consumed in
reaction.

PERCENT YIELD
◦ Ratio of the actual product formed to the
theoretical product.
Stoichiometry
Example:

1. At least how many grams of each

reactant must be used to produce 9.70
moles of HCl?

Answer: 197g CH3NO2 and 688g Cl2

Stoichiometry
Example:
2. Answer the following using the same
reaction. If 50g of each reactant are
made to react,
a. Which is the LR?
b. How many grams of CCl3NO2 will be
produced?
c. How many grams of ER will remain
unreacted?
Answers:
a. Cl2 b. 39 g c. 36 g
SOLUTIONS
Solutions
 Homogeneous mixture
 Consists of a solute and a solvent

SOLUTE – usually present in small

amount

SOLVENT – does not change its

phase in the formation of solution
Solutions
How is solution formed?
Interaction of solute-solvent
particles is stronger than the solute-
solute and solvent-solvent particles
Solutions
Expressions of Concentration

1.

2.
Solutions
Expressions of Concentration

3.
Solutions
Expressions of Concentration

4.

5.
Solutions
Expressions of Concentration

6.

7.
Solutions
Types of Solution
Solubility (s) – maximum amount of solute
that can be dissolved in a solvent at a
specific temperature.

1. Unsaturated Solution: C<S

2. Saturated Solution: C=S
3. Supersaturated Solution: C>S

TAB GUIDE: Table 2-120 PCEH 7th ed.

Table 2-122 PCEH 8th ed.
Solutions
Types of Solution
Solutions
Determine the
type of solution.
The solubility of
X is 0.194 and
0.453 g/mL at
20 and 60oC
respectively.
Solutions

1. Unsaturated
2. Saturated
3. Unsaturated
4. Superaturated
5. Saturated
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Chemical Equilibrium
Some chemical reactions do not
proceed completely. Equilibrium
reactions are simultaneous forward and
backward reactions.

Consider the reaction:

Chemical Equilibrium
Law of Mass Action
There is a definite mathematical
relationship between the equilibrium
concentrations
Chemical Equilibrium
Chemical Equilibrium Constant
Can be expressed in terms of
concentration or partial pressure.

Note: Only gases and aqueous states are

included in the equilibrium expression.
Chemical Equilibrium
Example:
A 1-L vessel initially contains 2.0 moles of
NO2 and SO2. The equilibrium constant
for the reaction is 5.4. What are the
equilibrium concentrations of all the
species at equilibrium?

Answers:
Chemical Equilibrium
Le Chatelier’s Principle
If a system in equilibrium is disturbed by a
stress, the system will readjust itself to
achieve a new equilibrium

Factors that affect shift in equilibrium:

1. Concentration
Shift towards the removed component or
away from the added component
Chemical Equilibrium
2. Temperature
Depends if endothermic or exothermic;
treat the temperature change as
chemical species.

3. Pressure
Shift towards the side where there is more
moles of gas (decrease in pressure) or
less moles of gas (increase in pressure).
 Chemical Equilibrium
Example
Predict the effect of the different stresses
on the species concerned.
2𝐴(𝑔) + 3𝐵(𝑔) ↔ 4𝐶(𝑔) ∆𝐻 = −
Species
Stress Applied Shift Effect
Affected
Removal of A C
Increase in temperature B
Decreasing the system A
volume
Addition of catalyst C
 Chemical Equilibrium
Example
Predict the effect of the different stresses
on the species concerned.
2𝐴(𝑔) + 3𝐵(𝑔) ↔ 4𝐶(𝑔) ∆𝐻 = −
Species
Stress Applied Shift Effect
Affected
Removal of A C Backward Decrease
Increase in temperature B Backward Increase
Decreasing the system A Forward Decrease
volume
Addition of catalyst C None None
Chemical Equilibrium
Reaction Quotient (Q)
Dictates the impending shift of
equilibrium; uses the law of mass of
action of the initial concentrations.
𝑐 𝑑
[𝐶]𝑜 [𝐷]𝑜
𝑄=
[𝐴]𝑜 𝑎 [𝐵]𝑜 𝑏

Relationship Interpretation
K>Q Shift to the right
K=Q No shift; equilibrium
K<Q Shift to the left