Differential & Integral Calculus

Course Objectives:
Calculus was first invented to meet the mathematical needs of scientists of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, needs that mainly mechanical in nature. Nowadays it is a tool used almost
everywhere in the modern world to describe change and motion. Its use is widespread in science,
engineering, medicine, business, industry, and many other fields. Calculus also provides
important tools in understanding functions and has led to the development of new areas of
mathematics including real and complex analysis, topology, and Non-Euclidean geometry.

The objective of this course is to introduce the fundamental ideas of the differential and
integral calculus, Matrices of functions of several variables.

Learning Outcomes

On successful completion of the course, the students should be able to:

Recognize properties of functions and their inverses;

Recall and use properties of polynomials, rational functions, exponential, logarithmic,
trigonometric and inverse-trigonometric functions;
Understand the terms domain and range;
Sketch graphs, using function, its first derivative, and the second derivative;
Use the algebra of limits, and l’Hôpital’s rule to determine limits of simple expressions;
Apply the procedures of differentiation accurately, including implicit and logarithmic
differentiation;
Apply the differentiation procedures to solve related rates and extreme value problems;
Obtain the linear approximations of functions and to approximate the values of functions;
Perform accurately definite and indefinite integration, using parts, substitution, inverse
substitution;
Understand and apply the procedures for integrating rational functions;
Calculate the volumes of solid objects, the length of arcs and the surface area;
Perform polar-to-rectangular and rectangular-to-polar conversions.
Distinguish between convergent and divergent sequences and calculate limits of convergent
sequences;
Recall and apply correctly tests for convergence of positive numerical series;

1
 Course Contents:
Week Module Topics/Module/Chapter
1 Module 1 Functions
Module 2 Limits &Continuity
2

Module 3
3
Derivatives
4
Module 4 Successive Differentiation

Module 5 Tangent & Normal

5

6 Module 6 Application of Differentiation

Midterm
Week Topics/Module/Chapter Course Teacher
Module 7 Partial derivatives
7

Module 8 Definite Integral & Indefinite

8 Integral
9 Module 9 Method of substitution Readings

10
Module 10 Integration By Parts
Text:
#Differential Calculus
Module 11 Integration by Partial Fractions By Das &Mukhergee
11 #Integral Calculus
By Das &Mukhergee

12
Module 12 Application of integration

Final Exam

2
 Module-01
Function
A function f from set A to set B is a rule of correspondence that assigns to each element x in set
A exactly one element y in set B.
Set A is the domain (or set of inputs) of the function f, and set B contains range (or set of
outputs).

Example: f(x) = x Where, x is a domain and f(x) is a range.

Characteristics of a Function:
1. Each element in A (domain) must be matched with an element of B (range).
2. Each element in A is matched to not more than one element in B.
3. Some elements in B may not be matched with any element in A.
4. Two or more elements of A may be matched with the same element of B.

3
Even and Odd Functions:

1. A function given by y = f(x) is even if, for each x in the domain,

f(-x) = f(x).
Example: f (x) = x 2

2. A function given by y = f(x) is odd if, for each x in the domain,

f(-x) = - f(x).
Example: f (x) = x 3

Problem 1: Prove that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝑥 is an even function.

Proof : Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝑥
Replacing 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 − 𝑥, we get
𝑓(−𝑥) = {𝑠𝑖𝑛(−𝑥)}2 × {cos(−𝑥)6 }
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝑥
= 𝑓(𝑥)
Given function is an an even function.
Problem 2: Prove that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝑥 is an odd function.
Proof : Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝑥
Replacing 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 − 𝑥, we get
𝑓(−𝑥) = {𝑠𝑖𝑛(−𝑥)}3 × {cos(−𝑥)}6 }
= {−𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝑥}
= −𝑓(𝑥)
Given function is an an odd function.
Problem 3: Prove that 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)is an odd function of x.
Proof : Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)
Now
𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(−𝑥) = ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) + ln (−𝑥 + √(−𝑥)2 + 1)
= ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) + ln(−𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)
= ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) . ln (−𝑥 + √(−𝑥)2 + 1)
= ln(√𝑥 2 + 1 + 𝑥) . (√𝑥 2 + 1 − 𝑥)
= ln(𝑥 2 + 1 − 𝑥 2 )
= ln 1=0
𝑓(𝑥) +𝑓(−𝑥)=0
𝑓(𝑥) = − 𝑓(−𝑥)
Given function is an an odd function.
Try Yourself:
Classify the function is even or odd:
1. f(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥.
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4 .
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 2 + 2 .

4
Periodic function:

A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be Periodic function of period T if it satisfies the condition

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑇) = 𝑓(𝑥), where T is the least positive real number.
Example: sin 𝑥 is a Periodic function of 2𝜋 .
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
That is , Periodic function is =
𝐵×𝑛

Problem 1: Find the Periodic of the function f(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (2𝑥 + 5) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 (3𝑥 + 4).

Solution: Given, f(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (2𝑥 + 5) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 (3𝑥 + 4)

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 sin 𝑥
Now the Periodic of the function 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (2𝑥 + 5) is =
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑓 𝑥(𝐵)×𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥( 𝑛)
2𝜋 𝜋
= = .
2×4 4
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 sin 𝑥
Again, the Periodic of the function 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 (3𝑥 + 4) is =
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑓 𝑥(𝐵)×𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥( 𝑛)
2𝜋 𝜋
= = .
3×4 6
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Here the LCM of and is .
4 6 2
𝜋
Therefore f(𝑥) is a periodic function with period .
2

Problem 2: Find the Periodic of the function f(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 5) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛(3𝑥 + 7).

Solution: Given, f(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 5) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛(3𝑥 + 7)

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 sin 𝑥
Now the Periodic of the function 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 5) is =
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑓 𝑥(𝐵)×𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥( 𝑛)
2𝜋
= =𝜋.
2×1
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
Again, the Periodic of the function 𝑡𝑎𝑛(3𝑥 + 7) is =
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑓 𝑥(𝐵)×𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥( 𝑛)
𝜋 𝜋
= = .
3×1 3
𝜋
Here the LCM of 𝜋 and is 𝜋 . Therefore f(𝑥) is a periodic function with period.
3

Try Yourself:
Find the period of the following function:
1. f(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥).
2. f(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(5𝑥) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑥) .
1
3. f(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2 𝑥).

5
Domain and Range: If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are related by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then the set of all
allowable inputs (𝑥-values) is called the domain of f, and the set of outputs (𝑦-values) that result
when 𝑥 varies over the domain is called the range of f.

Question: Find the domain and range of the following equations:

1 1 𝑥−3 𝑥
(𝑖) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑖𝑖) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑖𝑣)𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2 2𝑥+1 2𝑥+1 𝑥+1
2𝑥+5 𝑥 2 −4
(v) f (𝑥) = , (vi) f (𝑥) = .
𝑥−5 𝑥−2

Solution:
1
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2
𝑓(𝑥) gives the real values for all values of 𝑥 except 𝑥 = 2.
So, 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {2}

Again,
1
y = f ( x) =
x−2
1
 x−2 =
y
1
 x= +2
y
x gives real values for all real values of y except y = 0 .
𝑅𝑓 = ℝ − {0}
1
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥+1
1
𝑓(𝑥) gives the real values for all values of 𝑥 except 𝑥 = − 2.
1
So, 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {− }
2
Again,
1
y = f ( x) =
2x +1
1
 2x +1 =
y
11 
 x =  − 1
2 y 
x gives real values for all real values of y except y = 0 .
So, 𝑅𝑓 = ℝ − {0}

6
 𝑥−3
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥+1
1
𝑓(𝑥) gives the real values for all values of 𝑥 except 𝑥 = − 2.
1
So, 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {− }
2
Again,
x −3
y = f ( x) =
2x +1
 2 xy + y = x − 3
 x ( 2 y − 1) = −( y + 3)
( y + 3)
x=−
( 2 y − 1)

1
x gives real values for all real values of y except y = .
2
1
So, 𝑅𝑓 = ℝ − { }
2
𝑥
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+1
𝑓(𝑥) gives the real values for all values of 𝑥 except 𝑥 = −1.
So, 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {−1}
Again,
x
y = f ( x) =
x +1
 xy + y = x
y
x=−
y −1
x gives real values for all real values of y except y = 1 .
So, 𝑅𝑓 = ℝ − {1}

2𝑥+5
(v) Given, f (𝑥) = 𝑥−5
𝑓(𝑥) gives the real values for all values of 𝑥 except 𝑥 = 5.
So, 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {5}

Again,

7
 2𝑥+5
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−5
𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1
𝑥(𝑦 − 2) = 5𝑦 + 1
5𝑦+1
∴𝑥=
𝑦−2

x gives real values for all real values of y except 𝑦 = 2 . .

𝑅𝑓 = ℝ − {2}.

𝑥 2 −4
(vi) Given, f(𝑥) = 𝑥−2
𝑓(𝑥) gives the real values for all values of 𝑥 except 𝑥 = 2.
So, 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {2}

𝑥2 −4
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2
𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 4
𝑦(𝑥 − 2) = 𝑥2 − 4

(𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
𝑦= (𝑥−2)
𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)

∴ 𝑥 = (𝑦 − 2)
𝑓(𝑥) gives the real values for all values of 𝑦 except 𝑦 = 2.
So, 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {2}

Inverse function:
Letfbe a function whose domain is the set X, and whose image (range) is the set Y. Then
fisinvertible if there exists a function g with domain Y and image X, with the property:
If f is invertible, the function g is unique, which means that there is exactly one function g
satisfying this property (no more, no less). That function g is then called the inverse of f, and is
usually denoted as f −1.

Example:If f (x) = 2 x − 3 then the inverse function is f-1(x) = (x+3)/2.

Problem: Find the inverse of the function f (x) = 2 x − 3

Solution: Let, y = f (x) = 2 x − 3

8
  x = f −1 (y)
y = 2x − 3
y + 3 = 2x
2x = y + 3
y+3
x=
2
y+3
 f −1 (y) =
2
x+3
 f −1 (x) =
2

Problem: Find the inverse of the functions,

(i ) f ( x ) = 2x − 5
(ii ) f ( x) = x 2 − 3
4x − 7
(iii ) f ( x) =
2x − 4
(iv) f ( x) = 1 − x 2
Solution:
( i ) Let y =f ( x ) = 2 x − 5
 2x = y + 5
y +5
x=
2
y+5
 f −1 ( y ) =
2
x+5
 f −1 ( x ) =
2
( ii ) Let y =f ( x ) = x 2 − 3
 x2 = y + 3
x= y+3
 f −1 ( y ) = y+3
 f −1 ( x ) = x + 3 when x  3

9
 4x − 7
( iii ) Let y =f ( x ) =
2x − 4
 2 xy − 4 y = 4 x − 7
 x(2 y − 4) = 4 y − 7
4y − 7
x=
2y − 4
4y − 7
 f −1 ( y ) =
2y − 4
4x − 7
 f −1 ( x ) =
2x − 4
( iv ) Let y =f ( x ) = 1 − x 2
 y 2 = 1 − x2
 x2 = 1 − y 2
 x = 1− y2
 f −1 ( y ) = 1 − y 2
 f −1 ( x ) = 1 − x 2

Module-02

Limit & Continuity

Limit of function:If the values of 𝑓(𝑥) become arbitrarily close to a single number 𝑙 as the
values of a variable 𝑥 approaches to a from both sides of a (Right and Left) then 𝑙 is called the
limit of the function𝑓(𝑥). It is denoted by lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙.
𝑥→𝑎
Question:Prove that,
𝑥−1 1
(𝑖) lim 2 =
𝑥→1 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3 4
𝑥+1
(𝑖𝑖) lim =1
𝑥→0 2𝑥 + 1
𝑥2 − 4
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) lim =4
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9
(𝑖𝑣) lim =0
𝑥→3 𝑥−3

Solution:
𝑥−1
(𝑖) lim
𝑥→1 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3
10
 𝑥−1
= lim
𝑥→1 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥 − 3
𝑥−1
= lim
𝑥→1 𝑥(𝑥 + 3) − 1(𝑥 + 3)
𝑥−1
= lim
𝑥→1 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1)
1
= lim
𝑥→1 𝑥 + 3
1
= 4.
𝑥+1
(𝑖𝑖) lim
𝑥→0 2𝑥 + 1
0+1
=
2∗0+1
1
=
0+1
1
=
1
= 1.
𝑥2 − 4
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2
Since 2 is a zero of both the numerator and denominator. They share a common factor of𝑥 − 2.
The limit can be obtained as follows:
𝑥2 − 4
lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)
= lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
= lim (𝑥 + 2)
𝑥→2
=2+2
= 4.
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9
(𝑖𝑣) lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
Since 3 is a zero of both the numerator and denominator. They share a common factor of𝑥 − 3.
The limit can be obtained as follows:
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9
lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
(𝑥 − 3)2
= lim
𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3
= lim (𝑥 − 3)
𝑥→3
=3−3
= 0.

11
Evaluate: lim
1
x→ 0 x
 
1+ x − 1− x

Solution: lim
1
x→ 0 x

1 + x − 1 − x

( 1 + x − 1 − x )( 1 + x + 1− x )
x ( 1+ x + 1− x )
= lim
x→ 0

( 1+ x ) − ( 1− x )
2 2

x ( 1+ x + 1− x )
= lim
x→a

1 + x − (1 − x)
= lim
x →0 x ( 1 + x + 1 − x )

1 + x −1+ x
= lim
x →0 x ( 1 + x + 1 − x )

2x
= lim
x →0 x ( 1 + x + 1 − x )

2
= lim
x →0 1 + x + 1 − x

2
=
1+ 0 + 1− 0
2
=
1+1
2
=
2
=1

Problem 1: Evaluate
a. lim x 2 + 2 x − 4
x →−1

x2 − 9
b. lim
x →3 x−3
Solution:
a. lim x2 + 2 x − 4 = (−1)2 + 2(−1) − 4 = −5
x →−1

x 2 − 9 lim x2 − 9
b. lim = x →3
x →3 x − 3 lim x − 3
x →3

0
=
0

12
 When you get 0/0 you have what is called an indeterminant form and you must try other
techniques to determine the limit. In this case, factor both the numerator and
denominator and cancel common terms to remove the zero in the denominator. Then,
apply the limit rules to the simplified expression.
x2 − 9 ( x + 3)( x − 3)
lim = lim
x →3 x − 3 x →3 ( x − 3)
= lim x + 3
x →3

=3+3=6

2x2 − 7
Problem 2 : Evaluate lim
x → 6 − 3 x 2

2 x 2 − 7 lim 2 x2 − 7 
Solution lim = x →
=
x → 6 − 3 x 2 lim 6 − 3x 2 −
x →

  −
or or are all also known as indeterminant forms. When this form occurs when
−  
finding limits at infinity (or negative infinity) with rational functions, divide every term in the
numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator to determine the limit.

Since x 2 is the highest power of x in the denominator of our function, we have

2 x 2 − 7 lim ( 2 x2 − 7 )  x2
lim = x →
x → 6 − 3 x 2 lim ( 6 − 3 x 2 )  x 2
x →

 7
lim  2 − 2 
=
x →
 x 
 6 
lim  2 − 3 

x → x

2 − 0 −2
= =
0−3 3

13
 Continuity
Continuous Function: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous in an interval (𝑎, 𝑏) if it is
continuous at every point of the interval.

Definition: A function f(x) is continuous at x = a, if all of the following are true:

1. f(a) is defined
2. lim f ( x ) exists
x→a

3. lim f ( x) = f (a)
x →a

For example , e x ,sin x, cos x are all continuous function.

When dose a function to be continuous?
lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = f(a)
When x→a x→a

 R.H .L = L.H .L = functional

Discontinuous Function: If 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 then it is said to be discontinuous.

 x when x  1
Example-1: If f ( x) = 
2x-1 when x>1
Test the continuity of the function 𝑓(𝑥)at𝑥 = 1.
Solution:
When 𝑥 = 1 then lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ (2𝑥 − 1) = 2.1 − 1 = 1
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
And lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
When 𝑥 = 1 then𝑓(1) = 1. Therefore, lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1) .
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
So 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at = 1 .

a + x when x  0
Example-2: If f ( x) = 
a + x when x <0
Test the continuity of the function 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 0.
Solution:
When 𝑥 = 0 then lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+(𝑎 + 𝑥) = 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
And lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− (𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑎 − 0 = 𝑎
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
When 𝑥 = 0 then𝑓(0) = 𝑎. Therefore, lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) .
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
So 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at = 0 .
 x + 2 when x < 2
Example-3: If f ( x) =  2
 x -1 when x  2
Test the continuity of the function 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 2.
Solution:When 𝑥 = 2 then lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+(𝑥 2 − 1) = 4 − 1 = 3
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

14
And lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− (𝑥 + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4
𝑥→2− 𝑥→2
When 𝑥 = 2 then𝑓(2) = 3. Therefore, lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(0) .
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
So 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at = 2 .
2 x + 1, x  2
Problem 4: Show that f ( x) =  is discontinuous at x = 2.
4 , x=2
Solution: Since f(2) = 4 and lim f ( x) = lim (2 x + 1) = 5  f (2) ,
x→2 x→2

so f(x) is discontinuous at x = 2.

Problem 5:Let the function f(x) be defined for all values of x by


 x − 1, for x  0
2

f ( x) =  2

− x + 1, for x  0
Draw the graph of the function f(x) and test the continuity from the graph.

The function f(x) is discontinuous at x = 0

Because lim f ( x) = −1 and lim f ( x) = 1 and f (0) = 1 .
h →0 − h →0 +

In this case lim f ( x ) does not exist.

h→ 0

1
Problem 6: Determine the value of x at which the function f ( x) = is continuous.
2− x
Solution. The domain of the function is (−, 2) . The function is not defined at x = 2. Thus the
function is continuous for all values of x in the interval (−, 2) .
See the graph of f(x).

15
Possible Questions:
o Define limit and continuity.
o Let the function f(x) be defined for all values of x by

 x − 1, for x  0
2

f ( x) = 

− x + 1, for x  0
2

Draw the graph of the function f(x) and test the continuity from the
graph.
2x2 − 7
o Evaluate lim x → 6 − 3 x 2

o lim x 2 + 2 x − 4
x →−1

Module-03
Derivatives

Definition : The derivative of a function f at a point a, denoted by f ′(a), is

f ( a + h) − f ( a )
f (a) = lim
h →0 h
provided that the limit exists.
If we denote y = f (x), then f′(a) is called the derivative of f, with respect to (the independent
variable) x, at the point x = a.
Equivalently, the derivative can be stated as

f ( x) − f (a)
f (a) = lim
x →a x−a
Definition : The derivative of a function f is the function f ′, defined by
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ( x) = lim
h→0 h
for all x for which this limit exists.

16
#Basic Differentiation Formulas

Suppose f and g are differentiable functions, c is any real number, then

d n
1. ( x ) = nx n −1
dx
d d d
2. [UV ] = U (V ) + V (U )
dx dx dx
d d
V (U ) − U (V )
d U 
3.   = dx dx
dx  V  V 2

d d
4. [c f ( x)] = c  f ( x)
dx dx

#The Power Rule: For any real number n,

d n
( x ) = n x n −1
dx
d
For n = 1, this means that ( x) = 1  x1−1 = x 0 = 1 .
dx
d 0 d
And if n = 0, then ( x ) = (1) = 0  x 0−1 = 0 , which is consistent with the
dx dx
constant rule of differentiation (rule #1 above).

𝑑𝑦
Problem 1: Simple differentiation find if
𝑑𝑥
(i)𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 − 10
(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 log 𝑥
(iii) 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
(iv)𝑦 = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
(v)𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥
(vi) 𝑦 = (sec 𝑥)𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
(vii) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (log sec 𝑥)

Solution of (i) : Given that 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 − 10

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 − 10)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 ) − 𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥 2 ) + 𝑑𝑥 (36𝑥) − 𝑑𝑥 (10)
= 3𝑥 2 - 4x +36 -0
= 3𝑥 2 - 4x +36
Solution of (ii) : Given that 𝑦 = 𝑥 log 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 log 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

17
 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (log 𝑥) + log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥)
1
= 𝑥. 𝑥 + log 𝑥 .1
= 1 + log 𝑥.Ans
Solution of (iii) : Given that 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 ) + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥)

= x𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 Ans

Solution of (iv) : Given that 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥)
= −𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥Ans

Solution of (v) : Given that

𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 …(i)
Taking log on both sides of (i) and differentiating w.r.to x we get
log 𝑦 = log(𝑥 𝑥 )
=>log 𝑦 = 𝑥 log 𝑥
1 dy 𝑑 𝑑
=> = 𝑥 (log 𝑥) + log 𝑥 (𝑥)
y dx 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
= 𝑥. 𝑥 + log 𝑥 .1
𝑑𝑦
=>𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦(1 + log 𝑥)

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥 𝑥 (1 + log 𝑥)Ans.
𝑑𝑥

Solution of (vi) : Given that

𝑦 = (sec 𝑥)𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 …(i)
Taking log on both sides of (i) and differentiating w.r.to x we get
log 𝑦 = log(sec 𝑥)tan 𝑥
=>log 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 log(sec 𝑥)
1 dy 1
=>y dx = tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 . sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + log(sec 𝑥) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
dy
=>dx = 𝑦{𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 log(sec 𝑥)}
dy
=>dx = (sec 𝑥)𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 {𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 log(sec 𝑥)} (Ans.)

Solution of (vii) : Given that 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (log sec 𝑥)

18
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (log sec 𝑥) …(i)
Differentiating (i) w.r.to x we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= {𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (log sec 𝑥)}
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
= 2 sin (log sec 𝑥) {sin (log sec 𝑥)}
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
= 2 sin (log sec 𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (log sec 𝑥) (log sec 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
1
= 2 sin (log sec 𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (log sec 𝑥) . sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
sec 𝑥
= sin 2 (log sec 𝑥) tan 𝑥(Ans.)

𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑎+𝑦)
Problem 2 : Prove that , = where sin 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin(𝑎 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑎
Proof : Given that
sin 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin(𝑎 + 𝑦)
sin 𝑦
=>𝑥 = … (i)
sin(𝑎+𝑦)
Differentiating (i) w.r.to x we get
𝑑𝑥 sin(𝑎 + 𝑦) cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦 cos(𝑎 + 𝑦)
=
𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑎 + 𝑦)
sin(𝑎 + 𝑦) cos 𝑦 − cos(𝑎 + 𝑦) sin 𝑦
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑎 + 𝑦)
sin{(𝑎 + 𝑦) − 𝑦)}
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑎 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑎
=
𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑎 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑎 + 𝑦)
=
𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑎

Problem 3 :Find the differential co-efficient of 𝑦 = √𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥.

Solution:

19
Let , y = xe x sec x
differentiating w.r.to x we get,
dy
dx
= x
d x
dx
( )
e sec x + e x sec x
d
dx
x( )
 d d  1
= x e x (sec x) + sec x (e x )  + e x sec x.
 dx dx  2 x

 
= x e x sec x tan x + sec x.e x + e x sec x.
1
2 x
 1 
= e x sec x  x tan x + x + 
 2 x
e x sec x(2 x tan x + 2 x + 1)
= .
2 x
Problem 4 : Find the differential co-efficient of y = ln{ 1 + ln x − sin x} .
Solution:
y = ln{ 1 + ln x − sin x}
differentiating w.r to x we get,
dy
dx
=
1 d
(1 + ln x) − sin x dx
( )
1 + ln x − sin x 
1  1 d 
=  (1 + ln x) − cos x 
(1 + ln x) − sin x  2 (1 + lnx) dx 
1  1 
=  − cos x 
(1 + ln x) − sin x  2 x (1 + lnx) 

Problem 5 : Find the differential co-efficient of y = x x .

x

Solution:
y = xx
x

differentiating w.r.to x we get,

 x d 
dy
 
x d d
= xx x x ln x = x x (ln x) + ln x ( x x ) 
x

x
dx dx  dx dx 
x  1 d 
= x x  x x . + ln x.x x ( x ln x) 
 x dx 
1 1 
= x x .x x  + ln x( x. + ln x) 
x

x x 
1 
= x x .x x  + ln x(1 + ln x) 
x

x 

20
 𝑑𝑦
Problem : Simple differentiation find if
𝑑𝑥
(i)𝑦 = 𝑥 5 − 𝑥 2 + 78𝑥 − 100
(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 log 𝑥
(iii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥
(iv)𝑦 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥
(v)𝑦 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥

Module-04

Successive Differentiation
4 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Problem : 01. If 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 𝑥 then prove that 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0
4
Solution : Given that 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 2 + 4(−1)𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑥
= 2 − 4𝑥 −2
2
𝑑 𝑦
= 0 − 4(−2)𝑥 −3
𝑑𝑥 2
= 8𝑥 −3
𝑑2𝑦 8
2
= 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
L.H.S. = 𝑥 2 +𝑥 −𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
8 4 4
= 𝑥2. + 𝑥 (2 − ) − (2𝑥 + )
𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥
8 4 4
= + 2𝑥 − − 2𝑥 −
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
8 8
= −
𝑥 𝑥
= 0 = R.H.S.
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Hence 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0 (proved)

21
 −1
Problem-02. If 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎 sin 𝑥 , then show that (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦2 - x𝑦1 =𝑎2 𝑦.
−1
Solution : Given that 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎 sin 𝑥 …(i)
−1 𝑎 𝑑 1
𝑦1 = 𝑒 𝑎 sin 𝑥 √1−𝑥2 [𝑑𝑥 (sin−1 𝑥) = √1−𝑥 2 ]
−1
=>√1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦1 = 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎 sin 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦
=> (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦1 2 = 𝑎2 𝑦 [ squaring both sides ]
Again differentiating both sides w.r.to x we get
(1 − 𝑥 2 )2𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 2 (0 − 2𝑥) = 𝑎2 . 2𝑦𝑦1
=> 2(1 − 𝑥 1 𝑦2 − 2𝑥𝑦1 2 = 2𝑎2 𝑦𝑦1
2 )𝑦

=>(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦2 − 𝑥𝑦1 = 𝑎2 𝑦[ dividing both side by 2𝑦1 ]

(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦2 − 𝑥𝑦1 = 𝑎2 𝑦 (proved)

Problem -03: If 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 then show that 𝑦2 = 𝑦 (2𝑦 2 – 1 ).

Solution : Given that
𝑦 = sec 𝑥…(i)
Differentiating (i) w.r.to x we get
𝑦1 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
Again differentiating both sides w.r.to x we get
𝑑 𝑑
𝑦2 = sec 𝑥 (tan 𝑥) + tan 𝑥 (sec 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= sec 𝑥. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 . sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 . sec 𝑥
= (𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 )sec 𝑥

= (𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1 ) sec 𝑥

= (2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1 ) sec 𝑥
𝑦2 = 𝑦 (2 𝑦 2 − 1) (proved)

Home work:
1. If y = Aemx + Be− mx then prove that y2 − m2 y = 0 .
2. If y = Ae x + Be− x then prove that y2 − y = 0 .
3. If If y = x 4 + 4 x3 + 10 then find y2 and y3 . Ans: 𝑦2 = 12𝑥(𝑥 + 2), 𝑦3 = 24(𝑥 + 1)
4. If y = 8 x5 − 4 x3 + 14 x 2 then find y2 , y3 and y4 .
Ans: 𝑦2 = 160𝑥 3 − 24𝑥 + 28, 𝑦3 = 480𝑥 2 − 24, 𝑦4 = 960𝑥

Several operation of function

Several figure on fluctuation of function

22
 Increasing function: Decreasing function

dy dy
Property: 0 Property: 0
dx dx
Turning/critical point

dy
Property: =0
dx
Concave up function Concave down function

d2y d2y
Property: 0 Property: 0
dx 2 dx 2

Inflection point

23
 d2y d3y
Properties: (i) = 0 and (ii) 0
dx 2 dx 3
Local maximum

Absolute maximum: Maximum of the local maximums.

dy d2y
Properties: (i) = 0 and (ii) 0
dx dx 2

Local minimum

Absolute minimum: Minimum of the local minimums.

24
 dy d2y
Properties: (i) = 0 and (ii) 0
dx dx 2

Problem 1 (Fluctuation of function):Test whether the following functions are increasing or

decreasing.
64
f ( x) = 4 x + at x = 3
x
Solution :
64
Given function y = f ( x) = 4 x +
x
dy d  64 
 =  4x + 
dx dx  x 

=
d
(4 x) +
d
(
64.x − 1 )
dx dx
= 4 + 64(− 1).x − 1 − 1
= 4 − 64 x − 2
64
=4−
x2
For x=3
dy 64
 = 4 − 2 = 4 − 7.1 = −3.1  0
dx 3
dy
Since  0, at x = 3, the given function is decreasing at x= 3
dx

Problem 2 (Concavity test): Test whether the following functions are concave up or concave
down.
f ( x) = x 3 + 15x 2 + 75x at x = −8

Solution :
Given function:
y = f ( x) = x 3 + 15 x 2 + 75 x
dy d 3
=
dx dx
(x + 15 x 2 + 75 x )
=
d 3
dx
( )
x +
d
dx
( )
15 x 2 + (75 x )
d
dx
= 3x + 15.(2 x ) + 75
2

= 3x 2 + 30 x + 75

25
d2y
2
=
d
(
3 x 2 + 30 x + 75 )
dx dx
= 3(2 x ) + 30.1 + 0
= 6 x + 30
At x=-8
d2y
= 6(− 8) + 30 = −48 + 30 = −18  0
dx 2
d2y
Since  0 for x=-8, the given function is concave down at x=-8.
dx 2

Problem 3 (Inflexion point): Given the function y = x 3 − 3x 2 + 3x , find the point of inflexion.

Solution:
Given function: y = x 3 − 3x 2 + 3x -------------(i)
dy d 3
=
dx dx
(
x − 3x 2 + 3x )
=
d 3
dx
( )
x −
d
dx
( )
3x 2 + (3x )
d
dx
= 3x − 3.(2 x ) + 3
2

= 3x 2 − 6 x + 3
d2y d
2
=
dx
(
3x 2 − 6 x + 3 )
dx
= 3(2 x ) − 6.1 + 0
= 6x − 6
d3y d
= (6 x − 6) = 6.1 + 0 = 6  0
dx 3 dx
d3y
Since  0 , so inflection point obtained for
dx 3
d2y
=0
dx 2
 6x − 6 = 0
 6x = 6
 x =1
Putting x=-1 in (i) we have ,
y = 13 − 3.12 + 3 = 1 − 3 + 3 = 1
Inflection point is (1,1)

26
 Module-05
Tangent and Normal

Tangent and Normal Lines:

The derivative of a function has many applications to problems in calculus. It may be used in
curve sketching; solving maximum and minimum problems; solving distance; velocity, and
acceleration problems; solving related rate problems; and approximating function values.

The derivative of a function at a point is the slope of the tangent line at this point. The normal
line is defined as the line that is perpendicular to the tangent line at the point of tangency.
Because the slopes of perpendicular lines (neither of which is vertical) are negative reciprocals of
one another, the slope of the normal line to the graph of f(x) is −1/ f′(x).

Define Tangent and Normal: Let, P(x,y) be any on the curve APB whose equation y=f(x).
Let, the tangent and the normal at P meet the x-axis in T and G respectively. Draw PN
perpendicular a x-axis.

Figure:

27
(a).The portion of tangent intercepted between the point of contact and the axis of x is called the
length of the tangent. Length of the tangent PT = PN.Cosec

(b).The portion of normal at any point on the curve intercepted between the curve and the axis of
x is called the length of the normal. Length of the normal PG = PN.S ec

Problem 1:Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = x 2 + 2 x + 1 at the point
(1,4).

Solution: Given that, y = x 2 + 2 x + 1

dy
 = 2x + 2
dx

dy
At point (1,4), = 2+2= 4
dx

 Equation of the tangent at the point of (1,4) is

dy
 y − y1 = (x − x1 )
dx
 y − 4 = 4(x − 1)
4 x− y = 0

 Equation of the normal at the point of (1,4) is

−1
 y − y1 = (x − x1 )
dy
dx
−1
 y− 4 = (x − 1)
4
 4 y − 16 = − x + 1
 x + 4 y − 17 = 0

Problem 2: Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of at the point
(−1,2).

Solution:

28
At the point (−1,2), f′(−1)=−½ and the equation of the line is

Problem 3: Find the equation of the normal line to the graph of at the point

(−1, 2).

Solution: From problem 2, you find that f′(−1)=−½ and the slope of the normal line is −1/ f′(−1)
= 2; hence, the equation of the normal line at the point (−1,2) is

Problem 4: Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = x3 − 3x 2 − 9 x + 15
at the point (-3,-1).

Solution: Given that, y = x3 − 3x 2 − 9 x + 15

dy
 = 3x 2 + 6 x − 9
dx

29
 dy
At point (3,-1), = 27 + 18 − 9 = 36
dx

 Equation of the tangent at the point of (-3,-1) is

dy
 y − y1 = (x − x1 )
dx
 y + 1 = 36(x + 3)
 36 x − y+ 107 = 0

 Equation of the normal at the point of (-3,-1) is

−1
 y − y1 = (x − x1 )
dy
dx
−1
 y + 1 = (x + 3)
36
 36 y + 36 = − x − 3
 x + 36 y + 39 = 0

Problem-5: Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = 5x 2 + x + 1 at the
point (1,-2).

Solution: Given that, y = 5x 2 + x + 1

dy
 = 10 x + 1
dx

dy
At point (1,-2), = 10 + 1 = 11
dx

 Equation of the tangent at the point of (1,-2) is

dy
 y − y1 = (x − x1 )
dx
 y + 2 = 11( x − 1)
 y + 2 = 11x − 11
 y − 11x + 13 = 0

 Equation of the normal at the point of (1,-2) is

30
 −1
 y − y1 = (x − x1 )
dy
dx
−1
 y + 2 = ( x − 1)
11
 11y + 22 = − x + 1
11y + x + 21 = 0

Problem-6: Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = x 4 + x 3 + 1 at the point
(1,3).

Solution: Given that, y = x 4 + x 3 + 1

dy
 = 4 x 3 + 3x 2
dx

dy
At point (1,3) = 4.13 + 3.12 = 7
dx

 Equation of the tangent at the point of (1,3) is

dy
 y − y1 = (x − x1 )
dx
 y − 3 = 7( x − 1)
 y− 3 = 7 x − 7
 y− 7 x + 4 = 0

 Equation of the normal at the point of (1,3) is

−1
 y − y1 = (x − x1 )
dy
dx
−1
 y− 4 = ( x − 1)
7
 7 y − 28 = − x + 1
 7 y + x − 29 = 0

31
Problem-7: Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = x 3 + 2 x + 1 at the point
(2,3).

Solution: Given that, y = x 3 + 2 x + 1

dy
 = 3x 2 + 2
dx

dy
At point (2,3), = 3.2 2 + 2 = 3.4 + 2 = 14
dx

 Equation of the tangent at the point of (2,3) is

dy
 y − y1 = (x − x1 )
dx
 y − 3 = 14( x − 2)
 y − 3 = 14 x − 28
 y − 14 x + 25 = 0

 Equation of the normal at the point of (2,3) is

−1
 y − y1 = (x − x1 )
dy
dx
−1
 y− 3 = ( x − 2)
14
 14 y − 42 = − x + 2
14 y + x − 44 = 0

H.W: Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = 3x 3 − 4 x 2 + 1 at the
point (-1,3).

H.W: Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = 2 x 4 − 3x 2 + 1 at the
point (1,-2).

H.W: Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = x 3 − 3x + 9 at the point
(1,7).

Module-06
32
 Application of Differentiation
Condition of Maximum and Minimum values of a function:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
For Maximum value: (i) = 0 , (𝑖𝑖) <0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
For Minimum value: (i) = 0 , (𝑖𝑖) >0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

Problem-1: Find the maximum and minimum values of the function

2𝑥 3 − 21𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 − 20

Solution: Let 𝑦(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 21𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 − 20

𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 36
𝑑𝑥
When 𝑦(𝑥)is a maximum or a minimum ,
𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥
2
=> 6𝑥 − 42𝑥 + 36 = 0
=> 6(𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6) = 0
=>𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 = 0
=> 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 𝑥 + 6 = 0
=>𝑥(𝑥 − 6) − 1(𝑥 − 6) = 0
=>(𝑥 − 6)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
Hence 𝑥 = 6 𝑜𝑟 1
𝑑2 𝑦
Again ,𝑑𝑥2 = 12𝑥 − 42
𝑑2 𝑦
When 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑑𝑥 2 = 12.1 − 42 = −30 < 0 (maximum)
𝑑2 𝑦
When 𝑥 = 6 , 𝑑𝑥 2 = 12.6 − 42 = 30 > 0 (minimum)
i.e. 𝑦(𝑥) is a maximum at 𝑥 = 1 . Then the maximum value is
𝑦(1) = 2. 13 − 21. 12 + 36.1 − 20
= 2 − 21 + 36 − 20
= −3(Ans.)
And also 𝑦(𝑥)is a minimum at 𝑥 = 6 . Then the minimum value is
𝑦(6) = 2. 63 − 21. 62 + 36.6 − 20
= 432 − 756 + 216 − 20
= −128(Ans.)

Problem 2: Find the maximum and minimum values of the function 2𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 3
Solution: Let 𝑦(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 3
𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 12
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
When 𝑦(𝑥)is a maximum or a minimum , 𝑑𝑥 = 0

33
 => 6𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 12 = 0
=> 6(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2) = 0
=>𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0
=> 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2 = 0
=>𝑥(𝑥 − 2) − 1(𝑥 − 2) = 0
=>(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
Hence𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 1
𝑑2 𝑦
Again ,𝑑𝑥 2 = 12𝑥 − 18
𝑑2 𝑦
When 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑑𝑥 2 = 12.1 − 18 = −6 < 0 (maximum)
𝑑2 𝑦
When 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑑𝑥 2 = 12.2 − 18 = 6 > 0 (minimum)
i.e. 𝑦(𝑥) is a maximum at 𝑥 = 1 . Then the maximum value is
𝑦(1) = 2. 13 − 9. 12 + 12.1 − 3
= 2 − 9 + 12 − 3
= 2(Ans.)
And also 𝑦(𝑥)is a minimum at 𝑥 = 2 . Then the minimum value is
𝑦(2) = 2. 23 − 9. 22 + 12.2 − 3
= 16 − 36 + 24 − 3
= 1(Ans.)

Problem 3: Find the maximum and minimum values of the following functions:
x3
f ( x) = + x 2 − 8x + 4
3
Solution:
x3
Given function: y = f ( x) = + x 2 − 8 x + 4 -------------(i)
3
dy d  x 3 
=  + x 2 − 8 x + 4 
dx dx  3 
d  x3  d 2
= 
dx  3
 + ( )
x − (8 x ) + (4 )
d d
 dx dx dx
1
= .3 x 2 + 2 x − 8.1 + 0
3
= x 2 + 2x − 8
d2y d 2
= (
x + 2x − 8 )
dx 2 dx
= 2 x + 2.1 − 0
= 2x + 2

For local maximum or local minimum value of y we have,

34
 dy
=0
dx
 x2 + 2x − 8 = 0
 x2 + 4 x − 2 x − 8 = 0
 x ( x + 4) − 2 ( x + 4) = 0
 ( x + 4 )( x − 2 ) = 0
Either x + 4 = 0 or x − 2 = 0
 x = −4 or x = 2

d2y
For x = −4, = 2(− 4) + 2 = −6  0
dx 2
d2y
And for x = 2, = 2(2) + 2 = 6  0
dx 2
So for x = −4 , given function has a maximum value and the maximum value of y from (i)
(−4) 3 92
y max = + (−4) 2 − 8.(−4) + 4 = (Answer)
3 3
Again for x = 2 , given function has a minimum value and the minimum value of y from (i)
(2) 3 16
y min = + (2) 2 − 8.(2) + 4 = − (Answer)
3 3
Problem 4: A farmer has an adjustable fence that is 100m long. He uses this fence to enclose a
rectangular grazing area on three sides, the fourth side being a fixed hedge. Find the maximum
area he can enclose.
Solution: Let x and y are the dimensions of the rectangular grazing area and A is the area of the
rectangle which are shown in the following figure.

Since the total length of the fence is 100m.

According to the question we have
y = 100 − 2 x ------------------------(i)
and
 A = x. y
 A = x(100 − 2 x )
 A = −2 x 2 + 100.x

35
dA d
=
dx dx
(
− 2 x 2 + 100 x )
= − 2.(2 x) + 100.1
= −4 x + 100
d2A d
= (− 4 x + 100)
dx 2 dx
= − 4.1 + 0
= −4  0
d2A
Since  0 , so maximum value of A obtained for
dx 2
dA
=0
dx
 −4 x + 100 = 0
 4 x = 100
 x = 25
Putting x = 25 in (i)
y = 100 − 2.25 = 100 − 50 = 50
 The maximum area can be enclosed,
Amax = 25  50 m 2 = 1250 sq. meters (Ans.)

Problem 5: A rectangular plot of land is to be enclosed by a fence. Fence for the east-west sides
costs Tk.100 per running foot, while that for the north-south sides costs Tk.50 per running foot.
What is the maximum area that can be enclosed if Tk.15000 is available for purchasing the
fence?
Solution: Let the dimension of the east-west sides is x feet and the dimension of the north-south
sides is y feet.

Cost of fencing of east-west sides = (x+x)  100=200x

36
Cost of fencing of north-south sides = (y+y)  50=100y

According to the question

200x+100y=15000
 2x+y=150
 y=150-2x ----------------------(1)
Let the area of the rectangle is ‘A’
 A=x.y=x.(150-2x) [from (1)]
=150x-2x2
Now
dA d
=
dx dx
(150 x − 2 x 2 ) d2A d
= (150 − 4 x )
dx 2 dx
= 150 − 2.(2 x ) = 0−4
= 150 − 4 x = −4  0
d2A
Since  0 , so the maximum value of A will be obtained for
dx 2
dA
=0
dx
 150 − 4 x = 0
 4 x = 150
150
x= = 37.5
4
From (i): y = 150 − 2  37.5 = 150 − 75 = 75
Maximum area can be enclosed: Amax = 37.5  75 sq. feet ( Answer )

Problem 6: Suppose that we require a box of volume 2592 cubic inches with square top and
bottom and rectangular sides. Side material costs Tk.6 per square inch, and top and bottom
material costs Tk.9 per square inch. Find the dimensions for which we can minimize the cost of
the materials.

Solution: Let x inch, x inch and y inch are the

dimensions of the required box.
According to the question:

37
Volume of the box = x.x. y = 2592
 x 2 y = 2592
2592
 y = 2 ---------------(i)
x
Cost of the materials of the top and bottom= (x 2 + x 2 ).9 = 18 x 2
Cost of the materials of the remaining four sides= (xy + xy + xy + xy).6 = 24xy
Now let C is the total cost of the materials of the box.
C = 18 x 2 + 24 xy
 2592 
= 18 x 2 + 24 x. 2  [From (i)]
 x 
62208
= 18 x 2 +
x
= 18 x + 62208 x −1
2

dC d
dx dx
= (18 x 2 + 62208.x −1 ) = 18.(2 x ) + 62208.(− 1)x −1−1 = 36 x − 62208.x − 2

d 2C d
2
=
dx
(36 x − 62208.x − 2 ) = 36 − 62208.(− 2)x − 2 −1 = 36 + 124416.x −3
dx

For maximum or minimum value of C, we have

dC
=0
dx
 36 x − 62208.x − 2 = 0
62208
 36 x − =0
x2
36 x 3 − 62208
 =0
x2
 36 x 3 − 62208 = 0
 36 x 3 = 62208
62208
 x3 = = 1728
36
 x 3 = 12 3
 x = 12
d 2C
= 36 + 124416.(12) = 36 +
−3 124416
For x=12, 2
= 108  0
dx 12 3
d 2C
Since  0 , so C is minimum for x=12.
dx 2

38
 2592 2592
Putting x=12 in equation (i): y = = = 18
12 2 144
 12 inch, 12 inch and 18 inch are the required dimensions of the box. (Answer)

Problems: Find the maximum and minimum values of the following functions:
x3
(i ) f ( x) = − x 2 − 3x + 7
3
92 16
Ans: Maximum value is 3 and minimum value is 3 .
2 1
(ii ) f ( x) = x 3 + x 2 − 6 x + 8 (i)
3 2
50 19
Ans. Maximum value is and minimum value is .
3 8
(iii ) f ( x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 3x + 5(TryYoursel f )

Module-07
Partial Derivatives
Partial Differential equation:

An equation involving partial derivative of a function of one variable with respect to two or
more independent variable is called a partial differential equation.

u u
Example: x +y =u
x y

f f
Problem-1: Find and of the following functions
x y

(i) 𝑓 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2
(𝑖𝑖)𝑓 = log(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑓 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3

Solution of (i) : Given that 𝑓 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2

𝜕𝑓 𝜕
= (𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝜕𝑥 (𝑎𝑥 2 ) − 𝜕𝑥 (2ℎ𝑥𝑦) + 𝜕𝑥 (𝑏𝑦 2 )
= 2𝑎𝑥 + 2ℎ𝑦 + 0
= = 2𝑎𝑥 + 2ℎ𝑦
Again given that 𝑓 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2

39
𝜕𝑓 𝜕
= 𝜕 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝜕𝑦 (𝑎𝑥 2 ) − 𝜕𝑦 (2ℎ𝑥𝑦) + 𝜕𝑦 (𝑏𝑦 2 )
= 2ℎ𝑥 + 2𝑏𝑦

Solution of (ii) : Given that𝑓 = log(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )

𝜕𝑓 𝜕
= {log(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )}
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕
= (𝑥 2 2). (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )
+𝑦 𝜕𝑥
1
= (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2). 2𝑥

Again given that 𝑓 = log(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )

𝜕𝑓 𝜕
= {log(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )}
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕
= (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2).𝜕𝑦 (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )
1
= (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2). 2𝑦
Solution of (iii) : Given that𝑓 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3
𝜕𝑓 𝜕
= 𝜕𝑥 (𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3 )
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝜕𝑥 (𝑥 3 ) + 𝜕𝑥 (3𝑥 2 𝑦) + 𝜕𝑥 (3𝑥𝑦 2 ) + 𝜕𝑥 (𝑦 3 )
= 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 + 0
= 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2

Again given that 𝑓 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3

𝜕𝑓 𝜕
= (𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3 )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝜕𝑦 (𝑥 3 ) + 𝜕𝑦 (3𝑥 2 𝑦) + 𝜕𝑦 (3𝑥𝑦 2 ) + 𝜕𝑦 (𝑦 3 )
= 0 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2
= 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2
2 f 2 f
Problem-2: Show that f (x, y) = ln(x 2 , y2 ) satisfies the P.D.E + = 0.
x 2 y 2

Solution: Given that, f (x, y) = ln(x 2 , y2 )............(1)

Differentiating equation (1) partially w.r.t x & y, we get,

f 2x
= 2 ..............(2)
x x + y 2
f 2y
= 2 ..............(3)
y x + y 2

40
Again, Differentiating equation (2) & (3) partially w.r.t x & y, we get,

 2 f 2( x 2 + y 2 ) − 2 x.2 x
=
x 2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2
2 x2 + 2 y2 − 4 x2
=
( x 2 + y 2 )2
2 y2 − 2x2
=
( x 2 + y 2 )2
 2 f 2( x 2 + y 2 ) − 2 y.2 y
=
y 2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2
2 x2 + 2 y2 − 4 y2
=
( x 2 + y 2 )2
2x2 − 2 y2
=
( x 2 + y 2 )2

2 f 2 f
 L.H .S = +
x 2 y 2
2 y2 − 2 x2 2 x2 − 2 y2
= +
( x 2 + y 2 )2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2
=0
= R.H .S

Module-08
Indefinite Integral & Definite Integral

1. Define Indefinite Integral.

Solution: The notation  f (x) dx = F(x) + c .where c is an arbitrary constant means that F is an
anti-derivative of f . It is called indefinite integral of f and satisfies the condition that
F (x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f .

𝑑
Example: (i) (tan 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥

41
 𝑑 1
ii) log 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑥
𝑥

Solve the following integrals :

cos 𝑥
1. ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
1 cos 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
=∫ cosec 𝑥. cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 (Ans.)

2. ∫ √1 + sin 2𝑥dx
=∫ √𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 dx
= ∫ √(sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥)2 dx
=∫(sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
=∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=− cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 (Ans)

1
3. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1− sin 𝑥
(1+sin 𝑥)
= ∫ (1+sin 𝑑𝑥
𝑥)(1− sin 𝑥)
(1+sin 𝑥)
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
1+sin 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
1 sin 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
1 sin 𝑥
=∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ . 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
=∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=tan 𝑥 + sec 𝑥 + 𝑐 (Ans)

4. Find the following indefinite integrals:

x4 + 1 (1 + x ) dx
(x )
2
i.  5 x3dx ii.  x dx iii. dx iv.  v. 2
+ e x + 2 x dx
x2 x

42
  ( 4x )  (1 − 3x )(1 + x ) dx viii.  (3x + 4 x )
−1
vi. 3
+ 3x 2 − 2 x + 5 dx vii. 2
− 3x + 8 dx

ix.  (8e − 4a x + 3x −1 + 4 x dx ) x.  ( 2 x + 9 ) dx xi.  ( 5 x + 7 ) dx

x 5 3

(x ) 1
 x log dx xiv.  x 2e3 x dx xv.  x 3e 2 x dx
2
xii. 3
+ 2 .3x 2 dx xiii.
e x log e (log e x )

Solution:
i.  5 x 3 dx = 5 x 3dx
x 3+1
=5 +c (F-2)
3 +1
5x4
= + c.
4
2 1
ii.  dx = 2 dx
x x
= 2loge x + c (F-3)
x4 + 1  x4 1 
iii.  2 dx =   2 + 2  dx =  ( x 2 + x −2 ) dx
x x x 
=  x 2 dx +  x −2 dx
x 2+1 x −2+1
= + +c (F-2)
2 + 1 −2 + 1
x 3 x −1
= + +c
3 −1
x3 1
= − +c
3 x
 1+ x  1 x 1
iv.    dx =   +  dx =  dx +  1dx
 x   x x x
=log e x + x + c (F-3 and F-1)

(x )
+ e x + 2 x dx =  x 2 dx +  e x dx +  2 x dx
2
v.
x 2+1 2x
= +e +
x
+ c (F-2,F-4 and F-5)
2 +1 log e 2
x3 2x
= + ex + +c
3 log e 2

43
  ( 4x )
+ 3x 2 − 2 x + 5 dx =  4 x3dx +  3x 2 dx −  2 xdx +  5dx
3
vi.
= 4 x3dx + 3 x 2 dx − 2 xdx +  5dx
x3+1 x 2+1 x1+1
=4 +3 −2 + 5x + c
3 +1 2 +1 1+1
=x 4 + x3 − x 2 + 5x + c
vii.  (1 − 3 x )(1 + x ) dx =  (1 + x − 3 x − 3 x 2 ) dx

 (1 − 2 x − 3x ) dx
2
=
= 1dx − 2  xdx − 3 x dx 2

x1+1 x 2+1
= x-2 −3 +c
1+1 2 +1
= x-x 2 − x 3 + c
viii. ( )
3x −1 + 4 x 2 − 3x + 8 dx =  3 x −1dx +  4 x 2 dx −  3xdx +  8dx
= 3 x −1dx + 4 x 2 dx − 3 xdx + 8 dx
x 2+1 x1+1
= 3log e x + 4 −3 + 8x + c
2 +1 1+1
4 x3 3 2
=3log e x + − x + 8x + c
3 2
 (8e )
− 4a x + 3x −1 + 4 x dx =  8e x dx −  4a x dx +  3x −1dx +  x 4 dx
1
x
ix.

=8  e x dx − 4  a x dx + 3 x −1dx +  x 4 dx
1

1
+1
x 4
a x
= 8e x − 4 + 3log e x + +c
log e a 1
+1
4
5
4a x x 4
=8e −x
+ 3log e x + +c
log e a 5
4

44
  ( 2x + 9)
5
x. dx
Let z = 2x+9
dz d
 = (2 x + 9)
dx dx
dz
 =2
dx
dz
 = dx
2
1 ( 2x + 9) ( 2x + 9) + c
6 6
dz 1 z 5+1 1 z6
Now  ( 2 x + 9 ) dx =  z
5
= +c = 5
+c = +c =
2 2 5 +1 2 6 2 6 12

 ( 5 x + 7 ) dx
3
xi.
Let z = 5x+7
dz d
 = (5 x + 7)
dx dx
dz
 =5
dx
dz
 = dx
5
3 5
+1
dz 1 32 1 z2 1 z2 2
 ( 5x + 7 ) dx =  + c = 5 + c = (5x + 7 ) 2 + c
5
=  z dz =
3
Now z3
5 5 5 3 +1 5 2 25
2
(x )
2
xii. 3
+ 2 .3x 2 dx
Let z = x 3 +2
dz
 = 3x 2
dx
 dz = 3x 2 dx

( )
3
z 2+1 z3 x3 + 2
( )
x + 2 .3x dx =  z dz =
2
Now 3 2 2
+c = +c = +c
2 +1 3 3

45
 1
xiii.  x log e x log e (log e x )
dx

Let z = log e (log e x)

dz d 1 d 1 1
 =  log e (log e x)  = (log e x) = .
dx dx log e x dx log e x x
1
 dz = dx
x log e x
1 1
 x log dx =  dz = log e z + c = log e  log e (log e x)  + c
e x log e (log e x ) z
d 
xiv.  x 2 e3 x dx =x 2  e3 x dx −   ( x 2 )  e3 x dx dx
 dx 
e 3x
 e 
3x
= x2 −   2 x.  dx
3  3 
e3 x 2
3 3
= x2 − ( xe3 x )dx

e3 x 2  d  
= x2 −  x  e3 x dx −   ( x)  e3 x dx dx 
3 3  dx  
e3 x 2  e3 x e3 x 
= x2 − x − dx 
3 3 3 3 
e3 x 2  e3 x 1 e3 x 
=x 2
− x − . +c
3 3 3 3 3 
e3 x 2 3 x 2 3 x
= x2 − xe + e + c
3 9 27

46
 d 3 2x
xv. e 2 x dx = x 3  e 2 x dx −  [ (x )  e dx]dx
dx
e2 x e2 x
= x3 −  (3x 2 )dx
2 2
e2 x 3
2 2
= x3 − (x 2 e 2 x )dx

e2 x 3 2 d
= x3 − [x  (e 2 x )dx −  { (x 2 ). (e 2 x )dx}dx]
2 2 dx
2x 2x
e 3 e e2 x
= x3 − [x 2 −  {2 x. }dx]
2 2 2 2
2x 2x
e 3 e
= x3 − [x 2 −  {x.e 2 x }dx]
2 2 2
2x 2 2x
e 3x e 3 d
= x3 − + [ x  e 2 x dx −  { (x). (e 2 x )dx}dx]
2 4 2 dx
2x 2 2x
e 3x e 3 e2 x
= x3 − + [ xe 2 x −  {1. }dx]
2 4 2 2
2x 2 2x 2x
e 3x e 3xe 3
= x3 − + −  e 2 x dx
2 4 4 4
2x 2 2x 2x
3 e 3x e 3xe 3 e2 x
=x − + − . +c
2 4 4 4 2
e 2 x 3 x 2e 2 x 3xe 2 x 3 2 x
= x3 − + − e +c
2 4 4 8

1. Define Definite Integral.

Solution: If g(x) be an integral of f (x) , then the quantity g(b)-g(a) is called the definite integral
b
of f (x) between the limits a & b and is written as  f (x)dx .
a

1 2
Example-1.∫−1 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 =
3
1
1. ∫−1(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥
Solution:
1
Let I =∫−1(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥
1 1
= ∫−1 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫−1 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 1 𝑥4 1
= 2[ 3 ] −1 _[ 4 ] −1

47
 2 1
= 3 [13 − (−1)3 ] - 4 [14 − (−1)4 ]
2 1
= 3 2 − 4. 0
4
= 3 Ans:
𝜋
2. ∫02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝜋
Let, I = ∫02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝜋
1
=2 ∫02 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝜋
1
=2 ∫02 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
1 1
=2 ∫02 1𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝜋 𝜋
1 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
= 2 [𝑥] 02 − [ ] 02
2 2

𝜋 𝜋
1 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
=2 [𝑥] 02 − [ ] 02
2 2
1 𝜋 1 𝜋
= 2 [ 2 − 0] − [𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2 − sin 2.0]
4

𝜋 1 𝜋 1
=4− [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 − sin 0]= − .0
4 4 4
𝜋
=4

3.

48

2
sin 2 
0 1 + cos  d

2
1 − cos2 
= d
0
1 + cos 

2
(1 − cos  )(1 + cos  )
= d
0
1 + cos 

2
=  (1 − cos  )d
0
 
2 2
=  d −  cos  d
0 0
 
=  02 − sin  02
 
=( − 0) − (sin − sin 0)
2 2

= − 1 (Ans.)
2

4.Evaluate the following:

3 4 1 3 1 1
i.∫2 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 ii.∫1 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 iii.∫1 (4 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥 3 ) 𝑑𝑥iv.∫0 (√𝑥 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
√
1 1 3 2
v.∫−3(𝑥 2 + 2)𝑑𝑥 vi.∫−3(5 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥vii. ∫1 (4 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥viii.∫0 (2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
2
ix.∫1 (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5)𝑑𝑥

Solutions:
3 3 𝑥 1+1
i.∫2 2𝑥𝑑𝑥=2∫2 𝑥𝑑𝑥=[2. 1+1 ]32 =[32 − 22 ]=[9-4]=5

4 1 4 𝑥 −3+1 𝑥 −2 1
ii.∫1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥=[ −3+1 ]14 =[ −2 ]14 =[−2𝑥 2]14
𝑥3
1 1 1 1 15
=[−2.42 − (−2.12)]14 ]=[− 32 + 2]=32(Ans.)

3 3𝑥 2 𝑥 4 3
iii.∫1 (4 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥 3 ) 𝑑𝑥=[4x+ - ]
2 4 1
3.32 34 3.12 14
= [(4.3+ - 4 ) − (4.1 + − 4 )]
2 2
27 81 3 1
=[(12+ 2 - 4 )-( 4 + 2 − 4)]
27 81 3 1
=[12+ 2 - 4 )-(4 − 2 + 4]
48+54−81−16−6+1
= 4

49
 0
=4=0(Ans.)
1 1 1 −1
1
iv.∫0 (√𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
√ 𝑥
1 −1
+1 +1
𝑥2 𝑥2
=[ 1 + −1 ]10
+1 +1
2 2
3 1 3 1
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
=[ 3 + 1 ]10 3 + 1
2 2 2 2
3 1 3 1
12 12 02 02
=( 3 + 1 )-( 3 + 1 )
2 2 2 2
3
=2 + 2 − (0 + 0)
8
=3(Ans.)

1 𝑥3 13 (−3)3
v.∫−3(𝑥 2 + 2)𝑑𝑥 = [. 3 + 2𝑥]1−3=( 3 + 2.1) - ( + 2(−3))
3
1
=3 + 2 − (−9 − 6)
1 1+6+27+18 52
= 3 + 2 + 9 + 6= = 3 (Ans.)
3
1
x2 1
vi.  (5 − 2 x )dx = [5 x − 2 ] −3
−3
2
= [5 x − x 2 ]1−3
= 5.1 − 12 − [5.( −3) − ( −3) 2 ]
= 5 − 1 − ( −15 − 6)
= 4 + 21 = 25(Ans.)

3
3x 2 x3 3
vii. (4 + 3 x − x 2 ) dx = [4 x + − ]1
1
2 3
3.32 33 3.12 13
= [4.3 + − ] − [4.1 + − ]
2 3 2 3
27 27 3 1
= [12 + − − (4 + − )]
2 3 2 3
27 27 3 1
= [12 + − − 4 − + )]
2 3 2 3
72 + 81 − 54 − 24 − 9 + 2
=
6
68 34
= = (Ans.)
6 3

50
 2
x 2 x3 2 x3
viii. (2 x − x 2 ) = [2. − ]0 = [ x 2 − ]02
0
2 3 3
23 03 8 12 − 8 4
= 22 − − (02 − ) = 4 − = = ( Ans.)
3 3 3 3 3

2
x 2 +1 x1+1
2
ix. ( x + 2 x + 5)dx = [
2
+ 2. + 5 x]
1
2 + 1 1 + 1 1

x3 x2
=[
+ 2. + 5 x]12
3 2
3 2
2 2 13 12
= [ + 2. + 5.2] − [ + 2. + 5.1]
3 2 3 2
8 1
= + 4 + 10 − − 1 − 5
3 3
8 1 8 − 1 + 24 31
= − +8= = (Ans)
3 3 3 3

Module-09
Method of Substitution

1. ∫(𝑎𝑥 2 + 2bx + c)𝑛 (ax + b)dx

Solution
I=∫(𝑎𝑥 2 + 2bx + c)𝑛 (ax + b)dx
1 Put,
= ∫ 𝑧 𝑛 2 𝑑𝑧
(𝑎𝑥 2 +2bx+c) = z
1 𝑑𝑧
=2 ∫ 𝑧 𝑛 𝑑𝑧 ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 2ax+2b
=2
1 𝑧 𝑛+1
+ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡  dz = 2 (ax+b)dx
n+1 1
 2 dz = (ax +b)dx
1 (𝑎𝑥 2 +2bx+c)𝑛+1
=2 + 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
n+1
(𝑎𝑥 2 +2bx+c)𝑛+1
= + 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Ans:
2(n+1)

√tan−1 𝑥
2. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(1+𝑥 2 )
√tan−1 𝑥
Solve: Let : I =∫ 𝑑𝑥 put, tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑧
(1+𝑥 2 )

51
 1
or, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
1+𝑥 2
=∫ √𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1
+1
z2
=[1 ]+c
+1
2
3
𝑧2
=[ 3 ]+c
2
3
2
=3 [𝑧 2 ]+c
3
2
=3 [ (tan−1 𝑥 )2 ]+c Ans :

3. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥

Solution :

Let I =∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥 put 𝑧 = sin 𝑥 or, 𝑑𝑧 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑧3
= +𝑐
3
1
= 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 + 𝑐 (Ans)

(sin−1 𝑥)2
4. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
2
(sin−1 𝑥) 1
Solution : Let I =∫ √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 put, sin−1 𝑥 = 𝑧 or, √1−𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
= ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑧3
=3 +𝑐
1
=3 (sin−1 𝑥)3 + 𝑐 (Ans)

52
 1
5. dx
e + e− x
x

ex
=  x x − x dx
e (e + e )
ex
= dx
e2 x + 1
ex
=  x 2 dx Let, e x = z  e xdx = dz
(e ) + 1
1
=  2 dx
z +1
= tan −1 z + c
= tan −1 (e x ) + c(Ans.)

6. tan 3 x sec xdx

=  tan 2 x sec x .tan xdx
(z 2 − 1) z
= dxLet ,sec x = z  sec x tan xdx = dz
z
z2 −1
= dx
z
3 −1
=  (z − z )dz
2 2

5 1
z2 z2
= − +c
5 1
2 2
5
2
= (sec x) 2 − 2 sec x + c(Ans.)
5

53
 Module-10
Integration by Parts
1.∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution
I=∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
= 𝑥 2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫{𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 )∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥} 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 -∫ 2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
=𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 -2[x∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥-∫{𝑑𝑥 (x)∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥}dx
= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2[x𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 ] + 𝑐

= 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 -2x𝑒 𝑥 +2𝑒 𝑥 +c Ans:

2. ∫ 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝑑
= logx∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥-∫{ 𝑑𝑥 (logx)∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥}𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 1 𝑥2
= logx 2 - ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑥2 𝑋
=logx 2 - ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 1
=logx - ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝑥2 1 𝑥2
=logx 2 - 2 +c
2
𝑥2 𝑥2
= logx - 4 + c Ans:
2
Home Work:
i. log xdx ii. xe x dx iii. x 2 log xdx iv. x sin xdxv.
𝑥3 𝑥3
Ans:(𝑖)𝑥 log 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐(𝑖𝑖)𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 3
log 𝑥 − 9
+ 𝑐(𝑖𝑣) − 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 + 𝑐.

54
 Module-11
Integration by Partial Fractions

This technique involves decomposing a rational function into a sum of two or more simple
rational functions. For example, the rational function

can be decomposed into

The two partial sums on the right are called partial factions. Suppose that we wish to integrate
the rational function above. By decomposing it into two partial fractions, the integral becomes
manageable:

To use this method, we must be able to factor the denominator of the original function and then
decompose the rational function into two or more partial fractions. The examples below illustrate
the method.
Problem 1: Find the partial fraction decomposition of

Solution:
We begin by factoring the denominator as Then write the partial
fraction decomposition as

Our goal at this point is to find the values of and . To solve this equation, multiply both sides
of the equation by the factored denominator This process will produce the basic
equation.

This equation is true for all values of The most convenient values are the ones that make a
factor equal to zero, namely, and Substituting

Similarly, substituting for into the basic equation we get

We have solved the basic equation by finding the values of and Therefore, the partial
fraction decomposition is

55
Problem 2: Use the method of partial fractions to evaluate .
Solution:
According to the guide above (item #3), we must assign the sum of partial sums:

Multiply both sides by

Equating the coefficients of like terms from both sides,

Thus

Therefore the partial fraction decomposition is

The integral will become

where we have used substitution for the second integral.

Problem 3:Evaluate .
Solution:
We begin by factoring the denominator as Then the partial fraction decomposition is

Multiplying each side of the equation by we get the basic equation

This equation is true for all values of The most convenient values are the ones that make a
factor equal to zero, namely, and
Substituting

Substituting ,

56
To find we can simply substitute any value of along with the values of and obtained.
Choose :

Now we have solved for and We use the partial fraction decomposition to integrate.

Problem 4: Evaluate the definite integral

Solution:
This rational function is improper because its numerator has a degree that is higher than its
denominator. The first step is to divide the denominator into the numerator by long division and
obtain

Now apply partial function decomposition only on the remainder,

As we did in the previous examples, multiply both sides by and then set and
to obtain the basic equation

For

For

Thus our integral becomes

Integrating and substituting the limits,

57
 3x 2 + 3x + 1
Problem 5: Use the method of partial fractions to evaluate:  3 dx
x + 2 x2 + x

3x 2 + 3x + 1
Solution: Given that,  x 3 + 2 x 2 + x dx
Now, x 3 + 2 x 2 + x = x( x 2 + 2 x + 1) = x( x + 1)2

Let,

3x 2 + 3x + 1 3x 2 + 3x + 1 A B C
= = + + ..........(1)
x + 2x + x
3 2
x ( x + 1) 2
x x + 1 ( x + 1)2
3x 2 + 3x + 1 A( x + 1) 2 + Bx ( x + 1) + Cx
 =
x3 + 2 x2 + x x ( x + 1) 2
 3x 2 + 3x + 1 = A( x + 1) 2 + Bx ( x + 1) + Cx
 3x 2 + 3x + 1 = A( x 2 + 2 x + 1) + B( x 2 + x ) + Cx
 3x 2 + 3x + 1 = (A + B) x 2 + (2 A + B+ C) x + A...............(2)

Equating the co-efficient of x 2 , x & constant in equation (2) we get,

A + B = 3;2 A + B + C = 3; A = 1
 1 + B = 3;  2 + 2 + C = 3
 B = 2;  4 + C = 3  C = −1

Putting the values of A, B & C in equation (1) we get,

3x 2 + 3x + 1 1 2 1
 = + −
x + 2 x + x x x + 1 ( x + 1)2
3 2

Now,

3x 2 + 3x + 1 1 2 1
 x3 + 2 x 2 + x dx =  ( x + x + 1 − ( x + 1)2 )dx
1
= ln x + 2ln( x + 1) + + c(Ans.)
x +1
58
 1
Problem 6: Integral the flowing function w.r. to x (𝑥+1)(𝑥+2) (𝑥+3)
1
Solution : Let I = ∫ (𝑥+1)(𝑥+2) (𝑥+3) dx
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Also let, (𝑥+1)(𝑥+2) (𝑥+3) = (𝑥+1)
+ (𝑥+2) + (𝑥+3) ………..(1)
1 𝐴(𝑥+2)(𝑥+3) 𝐵(𝑥+1)(𝑥+3) 𝐶(𝑥+1)(𝑥+2)
= (𝑥+1)(𝑥+2) (𝑥+3) = (𝑥+1)
+ (𝑥+2) + (𝑥+3)
1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐶(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) ……………… (2)
Putting x = -1 in (2) 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
=> 1 = 𝐴(−1 + 2)(−1 + 3) + 𝐵(−1 + 1)(−1 + 3) + 𝐶(−1 + 1)(−1 + 2)
=> 1 = 2A + B.0 + C.0
=> 1 = 2A
1
=> A = 2
Putting x = -2 in (2) 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
=> 1 = 𝐴(−2 + 2)(−2 + 3) + 𝐵(−2 + 1)(−2 + 3) + 𝐶(−2 + 1)(−2 + 2)
=> 1 = A.0 + B.(-1) + C.0
=> 1 = -B

=> B = -1

Again Putting x = -3 in (2) 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

=> 1 = 𝐴(−3 + 2)(−3 + 3) + 𝐵(−3 + 1)(−3 + 3) + 𝐶(−3 + 1)(−3 + 2)
=> 1 = A(-1).0 + B (-2).0 + C (-2).((-1)
=> 1 = 2C
1
=> C = 2

Substituting Values of A, B and C in (1) we get

1 1
1 2 1 2
= + +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 3)
1
∴ 𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 3)
1 1
1 1 1
= ∫ [ (𝑥+1) − + ] 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥+2) (𝑥+3)
1 1 1 1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥+3) 𝑑𝑥
2 (𝑥+1) (𝑥+2) 2
1
= 2 log (𝑥 + 1) − log (𝑥 + 2) + log (𝑥 + 3) + constant
1
∴I= [log (𝑥 + 1) − log (𝑥 + 2) + log (𝑥 + 3)]+ constant
2
1
= 2 [log (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) − log(𝑥 + 2)2 ]+ constant
1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥+3)
= 2 log [ ] + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (Ans:)
(𝑥+2)2

59
 Module-12
Application of integration

1. Sketch the curve y = x3. Calculate the area bounded by this curve, the x-axis and the line
x = 1 and x = 2.

Solution:

Taking some points on the function

y = x3
x Y (x, y)
0 0 (0, 0)
0.2 0.008 (0.2, 0.008)
0.5 0.125 (0.5, 0.125)
1.0 1.0 (1.0, 1.0)
1.5 3.375 (1.5, 3.375)
2.0 8.0 (2.0, 8.0)

Shaded area of the above figure is the required area and the area is
2
 x4  2 4 14 16 1 16 − 1 15

2
x .dx =   =
3
− = − = = ( Answer )
1
 1
4 4 4 4 4 4 4

2. Sketch each pairs of the following curves then find the area bounded by the two curves:
y = x 2 + 2; y = 5 − 2 x
Solution :
Given curve: y = x 2 + 2
Line: y = 5 − 2 x

For intersection point we have,

x 2 + 2 = 5 − 2x
 x 2 + 2x − 5 + 2 = 0
 x 2 + 3x − x − 3 = 0
 x(x + 3) − 1(x + 3) = 0
 (x + 3)(x − 1) = 0
 x = −3 or x = 1
Taking some points on the curve:
X y (x, y)
-3 11 (-3,11)
-2 6 (-2,6)
-1 3 (-1,3)

60
 0 2 (0,2)
1 3 (1,3)

Two points on the line:

X y (x, y)
-3 11 (-3,11)
1 3 (1,3)
Now we draw the graph of the given curve and the line which are shown in the diagram. The
shaded region is the required enclosed area. The enclosed area is:-

 (5 − 2x) − (x + 2)dx =  5 − 2 x − x 2 − 2dx =  3 − 2 x − x 2 dx

 
1 1 1
2
−3 −3 −3
1
 x2 x3 
= 3x − 2. − 
 2 3  −3
1
 x3 
= 3x − x 2 − 
 3  −3
13 
= 3.1 − 1 − − 3.(− 3) − (− 3) −
2 2 (− 3) 
3


3  3 
1 
= 3 − 1 − − − 9 − 9 −
(− 27 )

3  3 
1 33 − 1 32
= 2 − − (− 18 + 9 ) = 11 − =
1
= (Answer)
3 3 3 3

3. Find the Area of the cardioid r = a (1+cos𝜃)

Solution: Given that , r = a(1+cos𝜃)

if r = 0 then r = a(1+cos𝜃) = 0

=> 1+cos𝜃 = 0

=>cos𝜃 = -1

=>cos𝜃 = cos𝜃 (±𝜋)

The area of cardiod

𝜋 1
A = ∫−𝜋 2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃

𝜋1 2
= 2 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑𝜃
2

𝜋
=∫0 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
= ∫0 𝑎2 (1 + cos𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
61
 𝜋
= 𝑎2 ∫ (1 + 2 cos 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
0

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑎2 [∫ 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ]
0 0 0

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑎2 [∫ 𝑑𝜃 + 2 ∫ cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ]
0 0 0

𝜋
1
= 𝑎2 [𝜃]𝜋0 + 2𝑎2 [sin 𝜃]𝜋0 + 𝑎2 ∫ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 0

𝜋
1
= 𝑎2 (𝜋 − 0) + 2𝑎2 (sin 𝜋 − sin 0) + 𝑎2 ∫ (1 + cos 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
2 0

2 2 (0
1 2 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑎 𝜋 + 2𝑎 − 0) + 𝑎 [∫ 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃]
2 0 0

2
1 2 𝜋 1 2 sin 2𝜃 𝜋
= 𝑎 𝜋 + 0 + 𝑎 [𝜃]0 + 𝑎 [ ]
2 2 2 0

1 1 sin 2𝜋 sin 0
= 𝑎2 𝜋 + 𝑎2 (𝜋 − 0) + 𝑎2 [ − ]
2 2 2 2
1 1
= 𝑎2 𝜋 + 𝑎2 𝜋 + 𝑎2 [0 − 0]
2 2
1
= 𝑎2 𝜋 + 𝑎2 𝜋 + 0
2
1
= 𝑎2 𝜋 + 𝑎2 𝜋
2
3
A = 2 𝑎2 𝜋square unit (Ans.)

1
4. Find the area of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ⁄3 + 5 Where 𝑥 = 1 to 8
1
Solve: Given that of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ⁄3 + 5…….(1)
8
The area is A = ∫1 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
8 1⁄
= ∫1 (𝑥 3+ 5) 𝑑𝑥
8 1⁄ 8
= ∫1 (𝑥 3+ 5) + ∫1 𝑑𝑥
4
𝑥 ⁄3
= [ 4 ] 81 +[5] 81
⁄3

62
 4 4
= 3⁄4 [(8) ⁄3 − ( 1 ⁄3 ] + 5 (81 - 11 )
= 3⁄4 (16-1) +5× 7
= 3⁄4 (15) + 35
∴ 𝐴 = 46.25 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 (𝐴𝑛𝑠)
Home work:

1. Find the area of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 Where 𝑥 = -1 to 1.

2. Sketch each pairs of the following curves then find the area bounded by the two curves:

y = x 2 + 1; y = −5 + 7 x

63