The Structure and Function of DNA The structure of DNA consists of two polynucleotide strands wrapped around each

other in a double helix. Hydrogen bonds between the bases hold the strands together. Each base pairs with a complementary partner such as A with T and G with C. Deoxyribonucleic acid, also known as DNA, is a complex organic compound found in all living cells. DNA is a nucleic acid with long chains of chemical units known as nucleotides. The long chains are polymers and the chemical units are monomers. Each nucleotide has three components: a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate group. There are four different types of nucleotides that make up DNA. They are adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. Nucleotides are linked when covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in a backbone consisting of a repeating sugar-phosphate, sugarphosphate sequence. The DNA bases form complementary pairs. Adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine. There are two polynucleotide chains that are held together with hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases on the opposite strands. The two polynucleotide twist together around each other and form a double helix. The bases can be in any order, but the sequence is important. The sequence of the bases encode the instructions for the structure and function of an organism. The two strands contain complementary information: A forms hydrogen bonds only with T, and C only bonds with G. When DNA is copied in a cell, the strands separate and each serves as a template for assembling a new complementary strand, this is the key to stable heredity. A DNA molecule contains all the genetic information for every living organism. DNA is organized into chromosomes in a cell. A chromosome is the storage place for all genetic information. A chromosome is one long piece of DNA. It contains many genes. Genes are long

stretches of DNA. Every gene consists of nucleotides. Proteins are the workhorses of the cell, controlling the reactions and providing much of the cells structure. So, genes control the production of proteins and the genetic information carried. Your cells have a large amount of DNA and a lot of genes so they are stored in a set of chromosomes. When two strands of DNA separate they serve as templates for the new strands. This results in a replication bubble. As the bubble grows each end has a replication fork form. At the fork proteins work together. This is where DNA is unwound and DNA polymerases build new strands of DNA. The leading strand is built continuously, but the lagging strand is built in pieces. The leading strand is where DNA polymerase builds a new strand by adding DNA nucleotides one by one. Each nucleotide pairs with its complementary nucleotide on the parental strand. This works the same for the lagging strand. The lagging strand starts with the segment of RNA. A clamp goes around the RNA and attaches to DNA polymerase, and builds a new piece of DNA. When it is finished it will release from the DNA polymerase. An enzyme called DNA ligase joins the pieces together and continues until there are two identical DNA molecules. In meiosis, pairs of homologous chromosomes stick together. This allows segments of non-sister chromatids to trade places. This blending of maternal and paternal genetic material is a key feature meiosis. Next the spindle will form and the nuclear envelope breaks down, allowing microtubules to attach to each chromosome of the homologous pair starting a tug of war. The cell began meiosis with forty six chromosomes, but each daughter cell has twenty three chromosomes. Now microtubules from opposite poles attach to chromosomes then move to the middle of the cell. This is when the sister chromatids separate and become full fledged chromosomes that move to opposite poles. Nuclear envelopes re-form and each daughter cell

splits into two cells. The process made four haploid cells. These haploid cells mature into gametes. That is how meiosis allows DNA to be divided into gametes.

References Campbell, Reece, & Simon (2007). Essential biology with physiology. [UOP Special Edition Series]. San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.