Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Piston engine Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Piston engine

Chapter 4 Piston engine Internal combustion engines have numerous advantages over external combustion
4.1 Introduction engines such as lower weight to power output ratio, simplicity, smaller initial cost, and
4.2 Classification of IC engines higher efficiency etc. Due to indirect heat transfer the external combustion engines permit
4.3 IC engine terminology for the use of any cheaper fuel such as coal, wood, oil etc. for combustion.
4.4 4-stroke SI engine Internal combustion engines are exhaustively used in automobiles, gas turbine etc.
4.5 2-stroke SI engine and external combustion engines are used in steam turbine, steam engine, nuclear power
4.6 4-stroke CI engine plant etc. Internal combustion engines are efficient than external combustion engines and
4.7 2-stroke CI engine also are smaller than external combustion engine of similar capacity.
4.8 Thermodynamic cycles in IC engines 4.2 Classification of IC engines
4.9 Indicator diagram and power measurement Internal combustion engines can be classified on the following basis.
4.10 Combustion in SI engine (a) Based on number of strokes: Number of strokes involved in a cycle of IC engine can
4.11 Combustion in CI engines be two strokes or four strokes. Such engine can be;
4.12 IC engine fuels ① Two stroke engines
4.13 Morse test ② Four stroke engines
4.14 Comparative study of IC engines (b) Based on thermodynamic cycle: Depending upon thermodynamic cycle used in the
Examples internal combustion engines these can be classified as:
Problems ① Engines based on Otto cycle (“Spark Ignition engine”)
② Engines based on Diesel or Dual cycle (“Compression Ignition engine”)
(c) Based on mechanism of ignition: Internal combustion engines have combustion as the
4.1 Introduction basic process. Combustion process may be initiated using externally assisted ignition
History of internal combustion engines dates back to year 1680 when Christian (spark ignition) or it may get initiated on its” own due to excessive compression
Huygens developed an engine using gun powder for explosion inside a cylindrical tube. (compression ignition). Such engines are called:
Subsequently, in year 1860 a non-compression engine utilizing coal gas was developed ① Spark ignition engines
by “Lenoir” in France. Engine was called Lenoir engine and it was operationally similar ② Compression ignition engines
to steam engine. In 1866 “Otto-Langen free piston engine” was developed in Germany The spark ignition engines may have “magneto ignition system” or “battery ignition
and it had thermal efficiency more than “Lenoir engine.” system” for creating necessary electric potential for producing spark.
In 1876 four stroke engine based on Otto cycle was developed by Nikolous Otto in (d) Based on type of fuel used: IC engines may be classified depending upon the type of
Germany which revolutionized the developments of internal combustion engines and are fuel being used. These can be:
even used till date. The compression ignition engine technology and engines based on it
① Petrol engines (petrol being used as fuel)
evolved in year 1892. Such engines are credited to Rudolf Diesel, another German
② Gas engines (gaseous fuel being used)
engineer and are so named as Diesel engine.
Two stroke engines came up in 1881 in Scotland and were first developed by Dugald ③ Diesel engines (diesel being used as fuel)
Clerke. “Brayton engine” based on Brayton cycle and “Atkinson engine” based on ④ Multi-fuel engines (more than one fuel being used)
Atkinson cycle were developed in year 1873 and 1885 respectively. (e) Based on fuel admission: IC engines can be of different types depending upon
Apart from conventional two stroke and four stroke engines described earlier the arrangement used for fuel admission:
“Wankel engine” which was rotary engine and the “Stirling engine” which was external ① Carburetor type engines (use carburetor fuel metering)
combustion engine came up in years 1957 and 1938 respectively. In 1923 an engine ② Injection type engines (use fuel injector and injection system)
called as free piston engine was developed by Pateras Pescara in France. (f) Based on type of cooling: IC engines have inherent requirement of continuous cooling
Free piston engine is actually a combination of reciprocating piston-cylinder engine of engine. Based on type of cooling these can be classified as:
and turbine. “Engine refers to a device which transforms one form of energy into the ① Air cooled engines (Generally used in small sized engines)
other form”. “Heat engine is a modified form of engine used for transforming chemical ② Water cooled engines (Generally used in large sized engines)
energy of fuel into thermal energy and subsequently for producing work”. Based on the (g) Based on type of motion: IC engines may have reciprocating motion of piston or it
mechanism used for adding thermal energy they can be classified into the following: may also have rotary motion. Such engines can be:
a) External combustion engine ① Reciprocating engines
b) Internal combustion engine ② Rotary engines
External combustion engine have combustion occurring outside engine and adding Reciprocating engines may have different cylinder arrangements such as:
heat to the working fluid used in the engine. Thus, in external combustion engines heat ① Opposed cylinder engines
released during combustion is indirectly utilized by the working fluid in external ② Inclined cylinder engines
combustion engine. Internal combustion engines have combustion occurring in engine ③ V-shaped cylinder arrangement
itself and heat released during combustion is directly utilized for getting shaft work.
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 Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Piston engine Lecture notes
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Rotary engines may be further classified as single rotor engines or multi-rotor engines i.e. 14). Cams and Camshafts
Camshafts: Cams are mo mounted
unted upon camshaft for opening and closing
① Single rotor engine the valves at right timings and for correct duration. Camshaft gets motion from
② Multi rotor engine crankshaft through timing gears.
4.3 IC engine terminology 15). Carburetor
Carburetor: Carburetor is device to prepare the air fuel mixture in right
Some of the basic components and generally used terms in internal combustion proportion and supply at right time.
engines are given as under. 16). Bore: It is nominal inner diameter of the cylinder.
1). Cylinder: It is a cylindrical block having cylindrical space inside for piston to 17). Piston area:
area It is the area of a circle of diameter equal to bore.
make reciprocating motion. Upper portion of cylinder which covers it from the 18). Stroke:: It is the nominal distance travelled by the piston between two extreme
top is called cylinder head. This is manufactured by casting process and materials positions in the cylinder.
used are cast iron or alloy steel. 19). Dead center:
center It refers to the extreme end positions inside the cylinder at which
2). Piston and Piston rings: Piston is a cylindrical part which reciprocates inside the piston reverses its motion. Thus, there are two dead centers in cylinder, called as
cylinder and is used for doing work and getting work. Piston has piston rings “top
top dead center” or “inner
inner dead center” and “bottom
bottom dead center” or “outer
outer dead
tightly fitted in groove around piston and provides a tight seal so as to prevent center”
center”. Top dead center (TDC) is the farthest position of piston from crankshaft.
leakage across piston and cylinder wall during piston’s reciprocating motion. It is also called inner dead center (IDC). Bottom dead center (BDC) refers to the
Pistons are manufactured by casting or forging process. Pistons are made of cast closed position of piston from crankshaft. It is also called outer dead center
iron, aluminum alloy. Piston rings are made of silicon, cast iron, steel alloy by (ODC).
casting process. 20). Swept volume:
volume It is the volume swept by piston while travelling from one dead
3). Combustion space: It is the space available between the cylinder head and top of center to the other. It may also be called stroke volume or displacement volume.
piston when piston is at farthest position from crankshaft (TDC). Mathematically, Swept volumevolume=Piston
Piston area*Stroke
area Stroke
4). Intake manifold: It is the passage/duct connecting intake system to the inlet valve 21). Clearance volume
volume: It is the volume space above the piston inside cylinder, when
upon cylinder. Through intake manifold the air/air-fuel mixture goes into piston is at top dead centercenter.. It is provided for cush
cushioning
ioning considerations and
cylinder. depends, largely upon compression ratio.
5). Exhaust manifold: It is the passage/duct connecting exhaust system to the 22). Compression ratioratio: It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when piston is at
exhaust valve upon cylinder. Through exhaust manifold burnt gases go out of BDC to the clearance volume.
cylinder. Compression ratioratio=(Swept
Swept volume
volume+ Clearance volume)/ Clearance volume
6). Valves: Engine has both intake and exhaust type of valves which are operated by
valve operating mechanism comprising of cam, camshaft, follower, valve rod,
rocker arm, valve spring etc. Valves are generally of spring loaded type and made
out of special alloy steels by forging process.
7). Spark plug: It is the external igniter used for initiating combustion process. Spark
plug is activated by electrical energy fed by electrical system with engine. It
delivers spark with suitable energy to initiate combustion at appropriate time for
suitable duration.
8). Bearing: Bearings are required to support crank shaft. Bearings are made of
white metal leaded bronze.
9). Connecting rod: It is the member connecting piston and crankshaft. It has
generally I section and is made of steel by forging process.
10). Crank: It is the rigid member connecting the crankshaft and connecting rod.
Crank is mounted on crankshaft. Crank transfers motion from connecting rod to
crankshaft as it is linked to connecting rod through crank pin.
11). Crankshaft: It is the shaft at which useful positive work is available from the
piston-cylinder arrangement. Reciprocating motion of piston gets converted into
rotary motion of crankshaft. Crankshaft is manufactured by forging process from
alloy steel.
12). Crankcase: Crankcase actually acts like a sump housing crank, crankshaft,
connecting rod and is attached to cylinder. These are made of aluminum alloy, Fig. 4.1: Internal combustion engine
steel, cast iron etc. by casting process.
13). Gudgeon pin: It is the pin joining small end of the connecting rod and piston. 4.44 44-stroke SI engine
This is made of steel by forging process.
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 Lecture notes
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Spark ignition (SI) engines employ external ignition system for initiating the mechanism in the engine and provides suitable amount of energy in the form of spark for
combustion process. Spark plug is the most commonly used ignition method used in initiating combustion process. This burning of mixture is accompanied by sudden
spark ignition engines. Let us first understand working of 44-stroke
stroke SI engine. Figure 4.
4.3 increase in pressure and temperature while piston ppasses
asses the TDC position. Here constant
shows the different strokes and processes associated with them. volume heat addition takes place and state 4 is attained. Due to this release of fuel energy,
the combustion products try to expand and piston moves from 44–55 i.e. TDC to BDC.
During this travel the inlet and exhaust va valves
lves remain closed. This stroke is called
expansion stroke or power stroke or expansion process. This is the stroke accompanied
by positive work available at shaft. Now while piston is at BDC the exhaust valve gets
opened and combustion products are exhaus exhausted
ted out during 55––6.
6. Cylinder is further
emptied and made ready for being recharged while piston travels from BDC to TDC, 66–1
pushing out burnt gases. This is called exhaust stroke.
Here we have seen that out of suction, compression, expansion and exhaust strokes
only expansion stroke is accompanied by the production of positive work, rest three
Fig. 4.2: P-VV and T T-ss diagram for SI engine cycle (Otto cycle)
strokes are work absorbing strokes. Work requirement for the three strokes is met from
Let us start with piston at TDC, state 1. As piston moves for TDC to BDC, the inlet
the work available during expansion stroke. For storing the excess energy and releasing it
valve gets opened and fresh air air-fuel
fuel mixture prepared in carburetor enters the cylinder.
when required, a flywheel is mounted over the crankshaft
crankshaft.. Cycle gets completed in two
This supply of airair-fuel
fuel mixture into cylinder is called suction process or suction stroke
revolutions of crankshaft. Examples of four stroke engines are petrol engines used in cars
during which inlet valve is open while exhaust valve remains closed.
etc.
After the piston reaches BDC, it reverses its motion and moves towards TDC. During
this piston travel both inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. Thus, the air
air--fuel
fuel mixture
4.55 22-stroke SI engine
inside
inside cylinder gets compressed till piston reaches TDC. This is the second stroke and
22-stroke
stroke SI engine is a modified form of 44-stroke
stroke engine where all the four processes
called compression stroke or compression process (2 (2–3).
3).
required for completion of one cycle of SI engine get completed in two strokes. Thus,
obviously in each stroke two processes get completed. Figure 4.44 shows the line diag diagram
ram
of 2--stroke
stroke SI engine.

Fig. 4.4: 2-stroke

stroke SI engine
General arrangement shows that here there are no valves as in case of 44-stroke stroke
engines, instead it has exhaust and suction ports. Piston has a projection on its top, which
acts like deflector. Mixture of air
air-fuel
fuel goes into crank case first and then gets tr
transferred
ansferred
IVC:: Inlet valve closed to top of piston at appropriate time.
IVO:: Inlet valve open Let us start piston movement from TDC to BDC. When piston reverses its motion
EVC:
EVC Exhaust valve closed from BDC to TDC then the suction port gets uncovered and fresh mixture enters and goes
EVO:
EVO Exhaust valve open into crank case. With piston moving from T TDC
DC to BDC and during covered position of
Fig. 4.3: Working of 4-stroke
4 stroke S.I. engine suction port the mixture gets transferred to the top of piston through transfer port. Upon
Now highly compressed air air-fuel
fuel mixture is available inside the cylinder and ready for reversal during piston travelling from BDC to TDC, the air fuel mixture on top of piston
combustion. With piston at TDC, the spark plug is activated and it releases spark for gets compressed and subsequently ge gets
ts ignited by spark from spark plug.
igniting air
air-fuel
fuel mixture. Spark plug used in the S SII engines gets activated by suitable
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 Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Piston engine Lecture notes
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The combustion of fuel-air mixture results in release of excessive energy which Working of 22-stroke
stroke compression ignition engine is shown in (a), (b), (c), (d)
forces piston to move from TDC to BDC. Simultaneously as piston uncovers exhaust port explaining the suction, compression, expansion and exhaust processeprocesses.s. During piston
the burnt gases go out through exhaust port. Again when piston reaches BDC it reverses travel from BDC to TDC air enters crankcase. When piston reaches TDC and reverses its
its motion and during travel from BDC to TDC the suction takes place as explained motion to BDC air in crankcase gets partly compressed and is transferred from crankcase
above at the bottom of piston while compression of fuel air mixture takes place on top of to top of piston through transfer port. Upon reversal of piston mmotion
otion from BDC to TDC
piston. Thus, suction and compression, both processes get completed during travel of the compression of air occurs by the top side of piston while on the bottom side of piston
piston from BDC to TDC. air again enters into crankcase. Upon piston reaching TDC fuel is injected into
Expansion and exhaust processes occur during travel of piston from TDC to BDC compressed air which is at high temperature and pressure. As fu fuel
el is injected into
along with transfer of fresh fuel air mixture from crankcase to top of piston. Here all four compressed air the fuel ignition gets set on its own due to temperature being more than
processes occur during two strokes and one revolution of crank shaft. Thermodynamic self ignition temperature of fuel, i.e. compression ignition. Fuel injection is continued for
cycle followed by 2-stroke SI engine is Otto cycle. Scooter engines are generally two some duration along with its ignition which causes relrelease
ease of excessive fuel energy. This
stroke engines. 2-stroke SI engines are used for smaller applications. energy release causes piston to go back from TDC to BDC, i.e. the expansion process as
4.6 4-stroke CI engine shown in (c). As piston reaches BDC it simultaneously forces air in crank case to get
Compression ignition (CI) engines operate generally on Diesel or dual cycle. In these transferred to cylinder space and forces burnt gases out of cylinder i.e. exhaust process.
engines the combustion is realized due to excessive compression and is so called Here also cycle gets completed in single revolution of crankshaft i.e. two processes
compression ignition engines. Here air alone is sucked inside the cylinder during suction occurring simultaneously in each stroke.
stoke and compressed. Degree of compression is much more than that of spark ignition
(SI) engines. After compression of air the fuel is injected into the high pressure and high
temperature compressed air. Due to high temperature of air the combustion of fuel gets
set on its” own. Self ignition of fuel takes place due to temperature of air-fuel mixture
being higher than self ignition temperature of fuel. Thus in CI engines, larger amount of
compression causes high temperature, therefore unassisted combustion.
Schematic of 4-stroke CI engine is quite similar to that of 4-stroke SI engine with the
only major difference that spark plug is replaced by fuel injector for injecting fuel at high
pressure into compressed air. 4-Stroke CI engine works with following four processes
getting completed in separate strokes.
General arrangement in CI engine is similar to that of SI engine with spark plug
replaced by fuel injector.
a) Stroke 1: Piston travels from TDC to BDC and air is sucked.
b) Stroke 2: Piston travels from BDC to TDC, while air is compressed with inlet and
exit passages closed.
c) Stroke 3: Piston reaches TDC and air gets compressed. Fuel injector injects fuel
into compressed air for certain duration. Ignition of fuel also takes place
simultaneously as air temperature is much higher than self ignition temperature
of fuel. Burning of fuel results in release of fuel chemical energy, which forces
piston to travel from TDC to BDC. Contrary to SI engine where heat addition
gets completed near instantaneously, in CI engines fuel injection and thus heat
addition is spread in certain stroke travel of piston i.e. heat addition takes place at
constant pressure during which piston travels certain stroke length as decided by
cut-off ratio. This is expansion process and piston comes down to BDC with both
inlet and exit valves closed.
d) Stroke 4: After expansion piston reverses its motion upon reaching BDC and
travels up to TDC with exit passage open. During this piston travel burnt gases
are expelled out of cylinder i.e. exhaust stroke. Fig. 4.5: 2-stroke
stroke CI engine
Completion of above four strokes requires two revolutions of crankshaft.
4.7 2-stroke CI engine 4.8 Thermodynamic cycles in IC engines
Fig. 4.5 shows the general arrangement in 2-stroke CI engine. Here the structure of Thermodynamic cycles used in IC engines are Otto cycle, Diesel cycle and Dual
CI engine is very much similar to that of SI engine with the major difference that spark cycle and are described in Chapter 9 under title of “Air
Air standard cycles
cycles”.. However, the
plug is replaced by fuel injector, structure is made sturdier to withstand high compression
ratio.
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 Lecture notes
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comparison of these cycles with one another for different reference conditions is
presented here.
(a) C
Comparison
omparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles for same compression ratio and heat
input:
input
Figure 4.6
6 shows the three cycles on P P-V
V and T-s
T s diagram for same compression ratio
and heat input. For same heat input, T
T-ss diagram shows;
Area bcef
bcef=
=Area
Area bc"e"f
bc"e"f=Area bb'c'e'f
(Otto) (Diesel) (Dual)

Fig. 4.7: Comparison of Otto, diesel and Dual cycles on P P-V T-ss diagram for same
V and T
maximum pressure and same heat input.
Here heat input is same so,
Area bcfg
bcfg=
=Area
Area b'c'f'g
b'c'f'g=Area
Area b"c"d"f"g.
(Otto) (Diesel) (Dual)
Heat rejected shall be given by;
Area adfg for Otto cycle
Area ad'f 'g for Diesel cycle
Fig. 4.6: Comparison of Otto
Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles on PP-V
V and T T-ss diagram for same
Area ae"f "g for Dual cycle
compression ratio and heat input. Comparison can be made by looking at these cycle
Area adfg > Area ae"f "g > Area ad'f 'g ⇒ WDiesel > WDual > WOtto
representations.
Heat rejected can be given as; Here W refers to net work in respective cycle.
For Otto
Otto=Area adef
def Hence, it can be seen that heat rejected is highest in Otto cycle followed by Dual
For Diesel
Diesel=Area
Area ad"e"f cycle and Diesel cycle. Thus, efficiency shall be maximum for Diesel cycle due to largest
For Dual
Dual=Area
Area ad'e'f work available followed by Dual cycle and minimum for Otto cycle at same maximum
A look at areas on T
T-ss diagram shows
shows: Area adef < Area ad'e'f < Area ad"e"f. pressure and same heat input.
Since heat input is same therefore based on the heat rejected one can say that as heat
rejected for Otto cycle is smallest so this has highest efficiency. It is followed by Dual 4.9 Indicator diagram and power measurement
cycle and smallest efficiency is for Diesel cycle. Internal combustion engines have combustion taking place inside and power is
(b) Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles for same maximum pressure and same available at crankshaft. The shaft work available is less than the total energy released
heat input
input: inside the cylinder due to frictional and other losses.
For carrying out comparison the P P-V
V and T-s representations
presentations for three cycles are For performance evaluation of internal combustion engine
engine, one is interested in
shown in Fig. 4.7.
4. following different powers
powers.

a) Indicated power
power:
It refers to the power available inside the cylinder i.e. the power provided to piston.
Mathematically
Mathematically:
Indicated power
power=(Energy
Energy in fuel)
fuel)-(Energy
(Energy loss in exhaust, coolant, radiation etc.)
It is measured from the indicator diagram which is obtained using indicator
mechanism.

Indicated power for 22-stroke

stroke engine
mep * ALn * nc p * AL N  * nc
  m Watt 
60 60  
where
mep=p
mep= m=mean
mean effective pressure in Pa
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 Lecture notes
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2
A=cross-sectional
A=cross sectional area of cylinder. A=πD /4, where D is bore.
L=length of stroke
N=rpm
n=Number
Number of power strokes per second
nc=n
=number of cylinders

Indicated power for 44-stroke

stroke engine
N 
pm * AL   * nc
mep * ALn * nc  2 
  Watt 
60 60  

b) Brake power
power:
It refers to the power available at crankshaft i.e. it is the useful shaft work.
Mathematically
Mathematically:
Brake power
power=(Indicated
Indicated power)
power)-(Energy
(Energy loss in friction, pumping and unaccounted
losses etc.)
Brake power is usually measured by absorption or transmission type dynamometers.
It can be given asas: Fig 4.
4.8: Indicator diagram and processes in IC engine
 2N 
Brake power   * T    *T Watt
 60 
For getting the indicator diagram
diagram,, “indicator diagram mechanism” is put over the IC
engine and real variation of pressure and volume states obtained.
where Indicator mechanism shown in Fig. 4.9, 9, has number of links “g” and chord for
 is angular speed, rad/s transferring linear displacement of piston rod into the rotation of drum “f”.
N is speed of rotation of shaft in rpm, A stylus “d” is operated over the drum through a parallel motion link “ee”.
T is torque, N. m Displacement of “e” is caused along yy-axis axis by an indicator piston rod “h”,
“ , which is
connected to indicator piston “b” put in indicator cylinder “a” as shown.
c) Friction power:
power Indicator piston is resisted by an indicator spring ““c”.. In between indicator cylinder
It refers to the power lost due to friction and other reasons. It is quantified by the and engine cylinder a cock is provided to isolate it after indicator diagram is obt
obtained.
ained.
difference between indicated power and brake power. Indicator mechanism has thus drum “f” rotating about its axis and stylus “d” operated
Friction power
power=Indicated
Indicated power
power-Brake
Brake power by pressure variation inside cylinder along yy--axis.
axis. Thus, displacement along volume axis
is made available by rotation of drum and along pressure axis it is made available by
Indicator diagram
diagram: vertical reciprocatory movement of stylus depending upon pressure inside engine
Indicator diagram is the graphical description of pressure and volume variations cylinder.
occurring inside cylinder. An indicator diagram for a four four-stroke
stroke internal combustion
engine is shown in Fig. 4.
4.8 along with the four different processes.

mep

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 Lecture notes
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Based on indicated power and brake power, the mechanical efficiency of engine can
be obtained as below.
Mechanical efficiency of engine
Brake power
mech 
Indicated power
ηmech=Brake
Brake power/Indicated power
Mechanical efficiency is thus indicator of how efficiently indicated power is
converted into brake power.

4.10
10 Combustion in SI engine
Combustion is the process of oxidation of fuel resulting into the release of energy
equivalent to calorific value of fuel. Energy released in combustion is in the form of heat.
Combustion process in spark ignition engine has requirement of the “mixture mixture of fuel and
air in right proportion,
proportion,” “mechanism
mechanism for initiation of combustion process process” and
“stabilization
stabilization and propagation of flame for complete burning.
burning.”
For complete combustion of every fuel there is chemically correct fuel fuel--air
air ratio also
called stoichiometr
stoichiometric ic fuel
fuel-air
air ratio. This fuel air ratio may be rich or lean depending upon
the proportion of fuel and air present in mixture. In SI engine this fuel air ratio generally
varies between 11:77 to 11:30 30 with lean mixture at 11:30 30 and rich mixture at 11:7.
Stoichiometric
Stoichiometric fuel-air
fuel air ratio is around 11:1414 to 1:15
1 15 for hydrocarbon fuel. The extreme
values of fuel
fuel--air
air ratio permissible in SI engine on both rich and lean ends put limits as
Fig. 4.9: Indicator diagram mechanism “lower
lower ignition limit
limit” and “upper
upper ignition limit
limit”.. Varying fuel
fuel-air
air ratio is required in SI
engine due to varying loads on engine between no loads to full load on engine. The ratio
For getting indicated power we need mean effective pressure (average pressure) and of actual fuel
fuel-air
air ratio to stoichiometric fuel--air
air ratio is given by “equivalence
equivalence ratio”
ratio or
volume displaced. From the indicator diagram obtained the mean effective pressure can “relative
relative fuel
fuel-air
air ratio”.
ratio . Appropriate fuel
fuel-air
air ratio
ratio is maintained in SI engines through
be obtained, knowing area of diagram, length of diagram and indicator spring constant. “carburetor
carburetor” (the fuel metering system).
Area of diagram can be estimated using plan meter and length of diagram measured.
Ad
Mean effective pres sure, mep 
pressure, *k
Ld
where Ad is area enclosed in diagram
Ld is length of diagram
k is indicator spring constant given as N/cm2×cm
cm travel.
Using mean effective pressure
pressure, the indicated power can be obtained by product of
pressure and volume displaced.

mep * AL  nN
stroke engine, 
Indicated power for 22-stroke Watt
60
where mep
mep=mean
mean effective pressure in Pa
AA=cross-sectional A=πD2/4,
sectional area of cylinder. A 4, where D is bore.
LL=length
length of stroke.
NN=rpm
nn=no.
no. of cylinders. Fig. 4.10: Phases of combustion in SI engine
Hence, it can be summarized that the complete combustion in SI engine occurs in
In case of 4-stroke engines, 2 revolutions are required for completing one cycle, three distinct zones i.e. preparation phase, flame propagation phase and after burning
therefore effective rpm shall be N/2. phase. In order to complete combustion in smallest possible time the flame propagation
N  phase and preparation phase sshould
hould be shortened. It is seen that out of total distance
mep * AL    n travelled in combustion space in first phase i.e. preparation phase about 10% of
 2 
stroke engine 
Indicated power for 44-stroke Watt combustion space length is covered in about 20–30%
20 30% of total time for combustion. Flame
60
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 Lecture notes
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propagation phase is spread in about 80% of combustion space length and is covered in “controlled combustion” and “after burning”. Combustion generally becomes abnormal
60–70%
70% of total time of combustion. “AfterAfter burning
burning” occurs in less than 10% of combustion in CI engines when the ignition delay is too large resulting into large
combustion space in less than 10% of total combustion time as evident from Fig. 4.11.
11. uncontrolled combustion and zigzag pressure rise. Abnormal combustion in CI engines
Combustion may also sometimes occuoccurr abnormally. “Abnormal combustion” is said may also be termed as “knocking” in engines and can be felt by excessive vibrations,
to occur when combustion begins inside the cylinder on its” own before the stipulated excessive noise, excessive heat release, pitting of cylinder head and piston head etc. In
time for it This abnormal combustion may be due to pre pre-ignition
ignition (i.e. ignition of fuel order to control the knocking some additives are put in CI engine fuel so as to reduce its”
even before spark plug ignites it) and results in uncontrolled pressure rise. Abnormal self ignition temperature and accelerate ignition process. Also, the combustion chambers
combustion is also termed as detonation or knocking and can be felt by jerky operation of are properly designed so as to have reduced physical and chemical delay.
engine, excessive noise, reduced power output etc.
4.12 IC engine fuels
Fuels used in SI engines and CI engines are different as the nature of combustion
process is different in the two engines. Normally hydrocarbon fuels are used for both the
applications and should possess desirable properties such as high calorific value, suitable
combustion characteristics, ease of handling, environment friendly etc. In SI engines the
fuel used is generally “gasoline” also called as petrol and is mixture of different
hydrocarbons. Gasoline is available from refining process and its” exact composition
depends upon the degree of refining and source etc. Gasoline should have capability of
mixing rapidly with air, suitable volatility, resistance to abnormal combustion etc.
SI engine fuels are characterized in respect to its” resistance to abnormal combustion
by its rating in terms of “Octane number”. Octane number of fuel is determined by
comparing the combustion performance of actual fuel with that of reference fuel. Octane
number is defined as the percentage by volume of iso-octane in a mixture of iso-octane
Fig. 4.11: Duration of combustion phases (C8H18) and n-heptane (C7H16). Iso octane is low boiling point fuel having very high
4.11
11 Combustion in compression ignition ((CI CI) engines resistance to abnormal combustion and is arbitrarily assigned octane number of 100.
Combustion in CI engines differ from SI engine due to the basic fact that CI engine “n-heptane” is seen to have very poor resistance to abnormal combustion and is so
combustion is unassisted combustion occurring on its its” own. In CI engine the fuel is assigned octane number of 0.
injected into combustion space after the compression ooff air is completed. Due to These “iso-octane” and “n-heptane” are also called as “primary reference fuels”. In
excessively high temperature and pressure of air the fuel when injected in atomized form order to determine octane number of any fuel its combustion characteristics are matched
gets burnt on itsits” own and burning of fuel is continued till the fuel is injected. with those of a variable mixture of “iso-octane” and “n-heptane”. The composition of
Theoretically this injection of fuel and its
its” burning should occur simultaneously up to the iso-octane fraction and n-heptane fraction which yields the similar combustion
cut-off
off point, but this does not occur in actual CI engine. Different significant phases of characteristics is used to know the octane number. Say, for example in a particular test the
combustion are explained as under. mixture of 80% by volume of iso-octane and 20% by volume of n-heptane offers the
combustion similar to that of test fuel. Then the test fuel shall have octane number of 80.
Octane number generally lies between 0 and 100 but can be extended beyond 100 by
using certain additives. “Tetra ethyl lead” is the most popular additive used in SI engines
which further increases resistance to abnormal combustion i.e. even more than that of
iso-octane.
In CI engines the Diesel fuel is generally used which is also available during
petroleum refining but is impure as compared to SI engine fuel. CI engine fuels are also
characterized by a rating given in terms of “cetane number” which also indicates the
resistance of fuel to knocking. Cetane number for any fuel is given by percentage by
volume of cetane (C16H34) in a mixture of cetane and α-methyl naphthalene (C10H7 CH3)
which offers the combustion characteristics similar to that of test fuel.
Cetane is arbitrarily assigned cetane number of 100 as it offers maximum knock
resistance and α-methyl naphthalene is assigned cetane number of 0 as it has minimum
knock resistance. Cetane rating is also obtained by the test similar to that for octane
Fig. 4.12: Pressure rise during combustion in CI engines rating.
Thus, it is seen that tthe
he complete combustion in CI engines may be comprising of 4.13 Morse test
four distinct phases i.e. “ignition
ignition delay
delay” followed by “uncontrolled
uncontrolled combustion,
combustion,” In IC engines there are three powers namely “indicated power” which is developed
inside cylinder, “brake power” which is available at crank shaft and “friction power”
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 15 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 16
 Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Piston engine Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Piston engine
which is lost in overcoming friction and other losses. Brake power can be measured by the cylinder during suction process. process.
using dynamometer at the crank shaft of engine. 6. Carburetor is required for preparing 6. Carburetor is not required.
Friction power can be experimentally determined by number of methods namely air-fuel mixture.
“Willan’s line method”, “Motoring test” and by the numerical difference between 7. Fuel goes into cylinder along with air 7. Fuel is injected after compression.
indicated power and brake power. during suction. For injection of fuel a fuel pump and
Morse test is experimental method for estimating the friction power of the multi injector is required
cylinder engine. Here engine is first run up to certain speed of rotation. Subsequently, one 8. Spark plug is required to initiate 8. Ignition of fuel takes place on its”
by one each cylinder of the engine is isolated from contributing to shaft work either by combustion. own due to high temperature of air
switching off electric supply to spark plug or by stopping fuel supply. When one cylinder inside cylinder.
is not producing power i.e. due to its isolation then also piston reciprocates in this 9. Combustion takes place isochorically. 9. Combustion takes place isobarically.
cylinder similar to other cylinders thus the frictional losses remain constant for the shaft 10. Due to low compression ratio the engine 10. To withstand high compression
running at same speed. When second cylinder is cut then also frictional losses remain structure is light. ratio the engine structure is sturdy.
same but the brake power and indicated power get reduced accordingly. This process of 11. Engine speed is higher. 11. Engine speed is lower.
cutting off each cylinder one by one is carried out till last cylinder and the brake power is 12. Efficiency is low. 12. Efficiency is high.
measured by dynamometer attached to crank shaft which is maintained to run at same 13. Generally used in 2-wheeler automobiles 13. Generally used in 4 wheelers and
speed of rotation when cylinders are cut off one by one. and smaller and lighter engines. bigger engines.
Mathematically, if there are n number of cylinders in a multi-cylinder engine. Then
initially when all cylinders are working.
Indicated power from n cylinders, ip   bp    fp  ; here ip, bp and fp refer to
n n n

indicated power, brake power and friction power respectively.

When one cylinder is cut then,
ip n –1
 bp 
n –1
  fp 
n

When second cylinder is cut then,

ip n –2
 bp 
n –2
  fp 
n

From above the power produced from first cylinder being cut off can be obtained as:
ip nth cylinder
 bp  – bp 
n n –1

Total indicated power from engine: ip n   ip nth cylinder

Thus, after knowing indicated power of engine the friction power can be determined
as under, because brake power is also known through dynamometer.
 fp  n
 ip  – bp 
n n

Friction power estimated using Morse test gives fairly correct estimate. Although,
there may be slight deviation because when each cylinder is cut then there is substantial
increase in engine vibrations and the friction losses may change due to change in back
pressure etc.

4.14 Comparative study of IC engines

Comparative study of IC engines with other prime movers is described here.

(a) Difference between SI and CI engine

SI engine CI engine
1. It works on Otto cycle 2. It works on Diesel/Dual cycle
2. Compression ratio is from 5 to 15. 2. Compression ratio is from 12 to 30.
3. Petrol (Gasoline) is used as fuel. 3. Diesel is used as fuel.
4. Fuel should have high self ignition 4. Fuel should have low self ignition
temperature. temperature.
5. A mixture of air and fuel is sucked inside 5. Air alone is sucked during suction
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 17 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 18
 Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Piston engine Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Piston engine
(b) Comparison of 2-stroke engine with 4-stroke engine (d) Comparison of gas turbine with steam turbines
2-stroke engine 4-stroke engine Gas turbine Steam turbines
1. One cycle is completed in one revolution 1. One cycle is completed in two 1. These are generally internal 1. These are of external combustion type.
of crankshaft. revolution of crankshaft. combustion type, but may be of
2. Power stroke is available in each 2. Power stroke is available in alternate external combustion type too.
revolution of crankshaft. revolution of crankshaft. 2. High quality fuel is being used. 2. Any type of poor or good quality fuel
3. Thermal efficiency is low. 3. Thermal efficiency is high. can be utilized.
4. Volumetric efficiency is less due to less 4. Volumetric efficiency is high due to 3. Thermal efficiency is better. 3. Thermal efficiency is poor than gas
time available for suction. large time available for suction. turbines.
5. Lighter flywheel is required due to more 5. Heavier flywheel is required due to 4. It does not require boiler, feed water 4. It requires boiler, feed water supply, feed
uniform torque available. less uniform torque available. supply, condensing plant etc. Number pump, condensing plant etc. instead of
6. Engine is compact and light in weight. 6. Engine is heavy. of components involved is small. compressor, combustion chamber as in gas
7. Cooling requirements are less. 7. Cooling requirements are high. turbines. Number of components involved
8. Valves are not required. 8. Complex valve operating mechanism is large.
is required. 5. These can be started quickly. 5. These take time to start because of time
9. Cost is low. 9. Cost is high. required in generating steam.
10. Used in light vehicles and small engines. 10. Used in heavy duty vehicles and 6. Maintenance cost is small. 6. Maintenance cost is high.
bigger engines. 7. These have smaller specific weight 7. These have large specific weight and
and size i.e. small weight per kW size and are exclusively suited for land
(c) Comparison of IC engines with gas turbine output and so these can be used in applications.
IC engines Gas turbine aviation applications.
1. IC engine have good part load 1. Gas turbines have poor part load 8. Initial cost and running cost are 8. Initial cost and running cost are large in
efficiency. These have internal efficiency. These may have external small. steam turbines.
combustion. combustion or internal combustion both as
per requirement. (e) Comparison between Diesel engine, Gas turbine and Steam turbine based plants:
2. IC engines are well suited for 2. Gas turbines are not well suited for (Parametric form)
smaller applications such as smaller applications, especially Parameter Diesel engine Steam turbine plant Gas turbine
automobiles. IC engines can be used automobiles. These are well suited for 1. Power generation 10 kW to 10 MW 1 MW to 1000 MW 100 kW to 100 MW
for small capacity power plants. aviation applications and land applications capacity
in power plants etc. as prime movers. It has 2. Efficiency 0.35 to 0.40 0.30 to 0.40 0.20 to 0.40
small specific weight and small size 3. Fuel High grade fuel, Medium to low High to medium
capability which make these suitable for liquid fuel of grade fuel, may be grade, may be liquid
airplanes. diesel grade gaseous, liquid or or gas fuel.
3. Balancing is poor due to 3. Balancing is good due to absence of solid fuel.
reciprocating parts. Mechanical reciprocating parts. Mechanical efficiency 4. Size and weight Medium Large Small
efficiency is also poor. is good due to rotary parts and no sliding 5. Capital cost $US 110–180 $US 140–1200 per $US 80–300 per kW
members US$ per kW kW
4. Maintenance requirement is high. 4. Poor maintenance requirement. 6. Lubrication Frequent oil and Negligible Oil topping up.
5. Type of fuels which can be used is 5. Large number of different types of fuels requirement filter changes
limited in number. can be used. 7. Maintenance Weekly and Daily Monthly and annual
6. Operation is noisy and large 6. Operation is silent and smooth. period monthly
vibrations are present. 8. Specific Very heavy Coal handling Intake and exhaust
7. No modification is possible for 7. Modifications such as reheating, installation needs foundations, facility, Ash mufflers etc.
improving efficiency and output in regeneration and intercooling etc. are vibration isolation, handling facility,
existing IC engines. possible in order to improve efficiency and enclosures for enough supplies of
output. making its water, exhaust
operation quiet etc. emission control etc.
9. Plant life 10–12 years 25 to 35 years 15 to 30 years

Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 19 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 20

 Lecture notes
notes:: Chapter 4 Piston engine Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Piston engine
The pressure
pressure--volume
volume (pV) diagram and how work is produced in an ICE Work W [J] is the product between the force F [N] which is pushing the piston and the
displacement, which in our case is the stroke S [m].
W=F⋅S (4.1)
We know that pressure is force divided by area, therefore:
F  p * Ap (4.2)
where p [Pa] the pressure inside the cylinder and Ap [m2] is the piston’s area.
Replacing (2) in (1), gives:
W  p * Ap * S (4.3)
We know that multiplying a distance with an area we get a volume, therefore:
W=p⋅V (4.4)
This is the instantaneous work produced in the cylinder for a certain pressure and
volume. To determine the work for the complete engine cycle we need to integrate the
instantaneous work:
W   F  dx   p  Ap  dx (4.5)
where x is the piston travel.
The product between the travel of the piston and the piston area gives the differential
volume dV displaced by the piston:
dV  Ap * dx (4.6)
Replacing (6) in (5), gives the work produced in the cylinder for a complete cycle:
W   p  dV (4.7)
Since the vast majority of the internal combustion engines have several cylinders, we are
going to introduce a more appropriate parameter to quantify work, which is specific
work w [J/kg].
W
w (4.8)
Fig. 4.13:Pressure
4.13:Pressure-volume
volume (pV) diagram for piston engine m
where m [kg] is mass of air-fuel mixture inside the cylinders for a complete cycle.
where: m 3 
We can define also the specific volume v   as:
S- piston stroke kg
 
Vc- clearance volume V
Vd- displaced (swept) volume v (4.9)
m
p0- atmospheric pressure
The derivative of the specific volume will be:
W- work
1
TDC-
TDC top dead center dv   dV (4.10)
BDC-
BDC bottom dead center m
IV- inlet valve from which we can write:
EV- exhaust valve dV  m  dv (4.11)
IVO-
IVO inlet valve opening Replacing (7) in (8) gives:
IVC-- inlet valve closing 1
EVO-
EVO exhaust valve opening
w
m  p  dV (4.12)
EVC-
EVC exhaust valve closing From (11) and (12) we get the mathematical expression of specific work for a complete
IGN (INJ)
(INJ)- ign
ignition
ition (injection) engine cycle:
w   p  dv (4.13)
The work produced inside the engine’s cylinders is called indicated specific work,
As you can see, there is a continuous variation of the pressure and volume inside the
wi [J/kg]. What we get at the crankshaft is a brake specific work wb [J/kg]. It is called
engine’s cylinders. We’ll see that the work produced by the ICE is function of the
“brake” because, when engines are tested on a test bench, they are connected to a braking
pressure and volume changes.
device (hydraulic or electric), which is simulating the load.
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 21 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 22
 Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Piston engine Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Piston engine
To get the brake work we have to subtract from the indicated work all the losses of Where k=spring scale in bar per mm
the engine. The losses are the internal frictions and the auxiliary devices which require Or
power from the engine (oil pump, water pump, supercharger, air conditioner compressor, a
alternator, etc.). These losses have an equivalent friction specific work wf [J/kg]. pm  * k bar 
l
wb  wi – w f Work done in one cycle
By looking at the indicated pressure-volume (pV) diagram above, we can see that =Mean indicated pressure*Area of the piston*Length of stroke
there are two distinct areas:  pmAL
 the upper area, formed during the compression and power strokes (+W)
 the lower area, formed during exhaust and intake strokes (-W), also named where, nc=number of cylinders
pumping work
Depending on the value of the intake pressure, the pumping work area can be To obtain the power of this engine, it is necessary to determine the rate at which work is
negative or positive. For atmospheric engines, the pumping work is negative because it’s done.
using energy from the engine to push exhaust gases out of the cylinders and draw fresh
air during intake. Indicated power of the engine:
For gasoline atmospheric engines, due to intake air throttling, the pumping losses are ip=Mean indicated pressure (pm)*Area of piston (A)*Length of stroke (L)*Number of
higher, being maximum at idle speed. Diesel engines are more efficient than gasoline power strokes per second (n)*number of cylinders (nc)
engines because there is no throttle on the intake, the load being controlled through fuel a 
injection.  pm AL * n * nc   * k  AL * n * nc
 l 
If we divide the brake specific torque to the indicated specific torque, we get the
mechanical efficiency of the engine ηm [-]:
wb
Unit of final result
m  (4.14) a 
wi Indicated power  pmAL * n * nc   * k  AL * n * nc
 l 
For most of the engines, mechanical efficiency is around 80-85% at full load (wide
open throttle) and it’s dropping to zero at idle, where all the engine torque is used to a mm 2   bar  1 
   *k
  * A m 2  * L m  * n   *n
maintain idle speed and not for propulsion. l mm   mm      s  c
   
ak  1 
Power calculations:    * ALn  * nc bar  m 3   
Measuring indicated power of piston engine  l    s 
 
 The area can be measured by an instrument known as ‘Planimeter’ or by the use of ak   N  1 
the mid ordinates rule. [On modern engines this diagram can be continuously taken    * ALn  * nc *105  2  m 3   
 l  m    s 
by employing two transducers, one pressure transducer in the combustion space and    
ak   Nm 
other transducer on the shaft. Through the computer we can thus get on line    * ALn  * nc *105  
indicated diagram and power of all cylinders]  l   s 
 
 The area is then divided by the length of the diagram in order to obtain mean height. ak  Joules 
This mean height, when multiplied by the spring scale of the indicator mechanism,    * ALn  * nc *105  
 l   s 
gives the indicated mean effective pressure for the cylinder. The mean effective or  
ak 
   * ALn  * nc *105
average pressure [pm] can now be used to determine the work done in the cylinder. Watts 
 l   
Calculations Hence, multiply the result obtained from calculating indicated power with 105 and the
Area of the indicator diagram= a mm 2  final unit will be in Watts.
 
Length of the diagram  l mm 
Expansion or compression work
a mm 2  There are many ways in which work can be done by or on a system. The remainder
Average height of the diagram=   h
of this section is devoted to considering several examples, beginning with the important
l mm 
mean

case of the work done when the volume of a quantity of a gas (or liquid) changes by
a mm 2    expansion or compression.
Average mean indicator pressure= pm    * k  bar   a * k bar 
l mm   mm  l   Let us evaluate the work done by the closed system shown in Fig. 4.14 consisting of
  a gas (or liquid) contained in a piston–cylinder assembly as the gas expands.
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 23 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 24
 Lecture notes
notes:: Chapter 4 Piston engine Lecture notes
notes:: Chapter 4 Piston engine

Fig. 4.14: Expansion or compression of a gas or liquid

During the process, the gas pressure exerts a normal force on the piston. Let p denote
the pressure acting at the interface between the gas and the piston
piston.. The force exerted by
the gas on the piston is simply the product pp*A,
A, where A is the area of the piston face.
The work done by the system as the piston is displaced a distance dx is
W  p Adx (4.15)
The product A*A*dx in Eq. 4.1515 equals the change in volume of the system, dV. Thus,
the work expression can be written as
W  pdV (4.16)
Fig. 4.15: Work of a quasi
quasi-equilibrium
equilibrium eexpansion
xpansion or compression process
Since dV is positive when volume increases, the work at the moving boundary is
positive when the gas expands. For a compression, dV is negative, and so is work found
from Eq. 4.16.
16. These signs are in agreement with the previously stated sign convention
for work.
For a change in volume from V1 to V2, the work is obtained by integrating Eq. 4.16
x2 V2
W   x1
W  
V1
pdV (4.17)
Although Eq. 4.17 is derived for the case of a gas (or liquid) in a piston
piston–cylinder
cylinder
assembly, it is applicable to systems of any shape provided the pressure is uniform with
position over the moving boundary.

Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 25 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 26