Natural Vegetation – Class 11 Geography

(Easy Notes)
1. SSWhat is Natural Vegetation?

 Natural vegetation means plants that grow on their own in a place without human help.

 These plants adapt to the climate, soil, and land of their region.

 Example: Forests, grasslands, and shrubs found in different parts of India.

2. Why is Natural Vegetation Important?

 Provides oxygen and cleans the air.

 Prevents soil erosion and protects land from floods.

 Gives shelter and food to animals.

 Used for timber, medicine, fruits, and fuelwood.

3. Different Types of Forests in India

Forests in India are divided into five main types based on climate and rainfall.

1. Tropical Evergreen & Semi-Evergreen Forests

 Found in areas with heavy rainfall (more than 200 cm) and warm weather.

 These forests remain green all year because trees do not shed leaves at one time.

 Trees grow tall (up to 60 meters) and have many layers (big trees, small trees, shrubs, and
creepers).

 Main trees: Rosewood, mahogany, ebony, white cedar, hollock.

 Where found? Western Ghats, Northeast India, Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

2. Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests)

 Found in areas with moderate rainfall (70-200 cm).

 Trees shed leaves in the dry season to save water.

 Two types:

o Moist Deciduous Forests (100-200 cm rainfall) – Found in Odisha, the Western

Ghats, and Himalayan foothills.

 Main trees: Teak, sal, shisham, sandalwood.

o Dry Deciduous Forests (70-100 cm rainfall) – Found in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and
parts of the Peninsular Plateau.

 Main trees: Tendu, palas, amaltas, khair.

3. Tropical Thorn Forests

  Found in dry areas with very little rainfall (less than 50 cm).

 Trees and plants have small leaves, thorns, and deep roots to save water.

 Main trees: Babool, ber, wild date palm, neem, khejri.

 Where found? Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh.

4. Montane Forests

 Found in mountainous regions, where temperature decreases with height.

 Vegetation changes as altitude increases:

o Up to 1,000 m: Deciduous forests (sal, teak).

o 1,000-2,000 m: Wet temperate forests (oak, chestnut).

o 1,500-1,750 m: Pine forests (chir pine).

o 2,225-3,048 m: Spruce and blue pine.

o Above 3,000 m: Alpine forests with junipers, fir, and rhododendrons.

 Where found? Himalayas, Western Ghats, Nilgiris, Vindhyas.

5. Littoral & Swamp Forests (Mangrove Forests)

 Found in coastal and wetland areas where land meets the sea.

 Trees have stilt roots that help them survive in salty water.

 Main trees: Mangroves (Sundari tree in the Sunderbans).

 Where found? Sunderbans (West Bengal), Andaman & Nicobar Islands, deltas of Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna.

4. Forest Conservation in India

Forests are important, but they are getting destroyed due to deforestation, overgrazing, and human
activities. The government has taken steps to protect them:

1. Indian Forest Policy

 First made in 1952, changed in 1988 to promote sustainable forest management.

 Goals:

o Increase forest cover to 33% of India’s land.

o Protect biodiversity and wildlife.

o Stop soil erosion and desert expansion.

o Promote social forestry (planting trees in villages, towns, and roadsides).

2. Social Forestry

 Encourages people to plant trees in public places like roadsides, schools, and village lands.

 Types:
 o Urban Forestry: Trees in cities and parks.

o Rural Forestry: Trees on village land and farms.

o Farm Forestry: Farmers growing trees on their own land.

5. Wildlife Conservation in India

 India is home to 4-5% of the world’s plant and animal species.

 Many animals like tigers, elephants, lions, rhinos, and deer are endangered due to hunting,
habitat destruction, and pollution.

 The government has taken steps to protect them.

1. Wildlife Protection Act (1972)

 Protects endangered species and national parks.

2. Special Projects

 Project Tiger (1973): Protects tigers and their habitats.

 Project Elephant (1992): Protects elephants and their movement corridors.

 Crocodile Breeding Project & Project Hangul: Protects crocodiles and the endangered
Hangul deer.

3. National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries

 103 National Parks & 563 Wildlife Sanctuaries in India.

 Famous ones: Jim Corbett (Uttarakhand), Kaziranga (Assam), Ranthambore (Rajasthan).

6. Biosphere Reserves

 What is a Biosphere Reserve?

o A special protected area for wildlife, plants, and local communities.

o Recognized by UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme.

o India has 18 Biosphere Reserves, 11 of which are recognized by UNESCO.

 Famous Biosphere Reserves:

o Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka)

o Sunderbans (West Bengal)

o Nanda Devi (Uttarakhand)

o Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu)

7. Summary

 Natural vegetation depends on climate, soil, and landforms.

 India has five types of forests: Tropical Evergreen, Tropical Deciduous, Thorn, Montane, and
Littoral/Swamp.
 Forests are important for oxygen, wildlife, climate regulation, and livelihoods.

 Government policies like the Forest Policy (1988), Wildlife Protection Act (1972), and
various projects help conserve forests and wildlife.

 Biosphere Reserves and National Parks play a key role in protecting India’s rich biodiversity.

1. What is natural vegetation?

A. Plants planted by humans
B. Plants growing naturally without human help
C. Plants grown in nurseries
D. Cultivated crops
Answer: B

2. Which of the following is NOT a benefit of natural vegetation?

A. Provides oxygen
B. Prevents soil erosion
C. Increases soil fertility
D. Causes deforestation
Answer: D

3. Tropical Evergreen & Semi-Evergreen forests are characterized by:

A. Trees shedding all leaves during a specific season
B. Sparse vegetation with only small shrubs
C. Tall trees with multiple layers and year-round greenery
D. Only low-lying grasses and no trees
Answer: C

4. Tropical Deciduous forests are also known as:

A. Thorn forests
B. Monsoon forests
C. Evergreen forests
D. Alpine forests
Answer: B

5. In Tropical Deciduous forests, Moist Deciduous type is typically found in areas with rainfall
between:
A. 50-70 cm
B. 70-100 cm
C. 100-200 cm
D. Above 200 cm
Answer: C

6. Tropical Thorn Forests are generally found in regions receiving:

A. More than 200 cm of rainfall
B. 100-200 cm of rainfall
C. 70-100 cm of rainfall
 D. Less than 50 cm of rainfall
Answer: D

7. Mangrove forests, a type of Littoral & Swamp forests, are adapted to coastal areas
because their trees have:
A. Deep taproots
B. Stilt roots
C. Broad leaves for shade
D. No roots at all
Answer: B

8. One of the main objectives of the Indian Forest Policy (modified in 1988) is to:
A. Increase forest cover to 33% of India’s land area
B. Promote rapid industrialization in forest areas
C. Convert forests into agricultural lands
D. Exploit forests for timber export
Answer: A

9. Which Act was enacted in 1972 to protect wildlife in India?

A. Indian Forest Act
B. Wildlife Protection Act
C. Environmental Protection Act
D. Biodiversity Conservation Act
Answer: B

10. According to the chapter, India has how many Biosphere Reserves?
A. 11
B. 15
C. 18
D. 21
Answer: C
 Chapter: Geomorphic Processes

1. Introduction to Geomorphic Processes

 The Earth's surface is dynamic, constantly shaped by internal (endogenic) and external
(exogenic) forces.

 Endogenic forces build up landforms, while exogenic forces wear them down.

 The balance between these forces results in the constant reshaping of landforms.

2. Types of Geomorphic Processes

A. Endogenic Processes (Internal Forces)

These processes originate from within the Earth due to geothermal energy, causing movements and
deformation of the crust.

1. Diastrophism

 Refers to the deformation of the Earth's crust due to tectonic forces.

 Includes:

o Orogeny – Mountain building due to folding (e.g., Himalayas).

o Epeirogeny – Broad uplift or subsidence of continents without folding.

o Earthquakes – Localized crustal movements due to stress release.

o Plate Tectonics – Large-scale movements of Earth's lithospheric plates.

2. Volcanism

 The movement of molten rock (magma) from beneath the Earth to the surface.

 Can form intrusive (below surface) and extrusive (above surface) landforms.

B. Exogenic Processes (External Forces)

These processes derive energy from the sun and the Earth’s atmosphere, working to wear down
landforms.

1. Weathering (Breakdown of Rocks)

 Mechanical (Physical) Weathering

o Breakdown of rocks without chemical change.

o Caused by temperature changes, frost action, salt crystallization, and unloading

(exfoliation).
  Chemical Weathering

o Decomposition of rocks through chemical reactions like oxidation, hydration,

carbonation, and solution.

 Biological Weathering

o Breakdown of rocks due to plant roots, burrowing animals, and microbial activity.

2. Mass Movements (Gravity-Induced Movements)

 Downslope movement of weathered material due to gravity, without transport by water,

wind, or ice.

 Types:

o Creep – Slow movement of soil downhill.

o Flow – Rapid movement of saturated debris (e.g., mudflows, debris flows).

o Slide – Material moves as a single unit (e.g., rockslides, landslides).

o Fall – Free fall of rock fragments from cliffs.

3. Erosion and Deposition

 Erosion – Removal and transportation of rock debris by natural agents such as wind, water,
glaciers, and waves.

 Deposition – The laying down of transported material when energy decreases.

 Major Erosional and Depositional Agents:

o Running Water – Rivers carve valleys and deposit sediments in plains.

o Glaciers – Ice erodes and transports large rock debris.

o Waves – Coastal erosion and deposition shape shorelines.

o Wind – Creates desert features like dunes and loess deposits.

o Groundwater – Forms caves and karst landscapes through chemical weathering.

3. Soil Formation (Pedogenesis)

Soil formation is the result of weathering and organic activity over time.

A. Soil-Forming Factors

 Parent Material – The rock or sediment from which soil develops.

 Topography – Affects drainage and erosion, influencing soil depth.

 Climate – Controls moisture and temperature, impacting chemical and biological processes.

 Biological Activity – Includes plant roots, microorganisms, and burrowing animals that
contribute to soil development.
  Time – Longer time periods allow more soil profile development.

4. Significance of Geomorphic Processes

 Weathering is crucial for soil formation and nutrient cycling.

 Mass Movements shape landscapes and impact human settlements.

 Erosion and Deposition contribute to landform development and sediment cycles.

 Soil Formation supports agriculture, biodiversity, and ecosystem sustainability.

1. Which of the following is an example of an endogenic process?

A) Weathering
B) Erosion
C) Volcanism
D) Deposition

✅ Answer: C) Volcanism

2. What is the primary cause of exogenic processes?

A) Radioactive decay
B) Tectonic activity
C) Solar energy and gravity
D) Internal heat of the Earth

✅ Answer: C) Solar energy and gravity

3. Which of the following processes leads to the breaking of rocks without any chemical change?

A) Oxidation
B) Frost action
C) Carbonation
D) Hydration

✅ Answer: B) Frost action

4. Which factor plays a crucial role in mass movements?

A) Temperature variations
B) Gravity
C) Ocean currents
D) Human activities

✅ Answer: B) Gravity

5. Which type of weathering occurs due to the growth of plant roots in rock crevices?

A) Chemical weathering
B) Physical weathering
C) Biological weathering
D) Oxidation

✅ Answer: C) Biological weathering

6. What is the difference between erosion and mass movement?

A) Erosion involves the transportation of materials, while mass movement does not.
B) Mass movement requires an external agent, while erosion does not.
C) Both are the same process.
D) Erosion only occurs due to water, whereas mass movement is due to wind.

✅ Answer: A) Erosion involves the transportation of materials, while mass movement does not.

7. Which type of mass movement is the slowest?

A) Landslides
B) Mudflows
C) Rockfalls
D) Soil creep

✅ Answer: D) Soil creep

8. The removal of dissolved materials from soil by water is known as:

A) Leaching
B) Hydration
C) Oxidation
D) Weathering

✅ Answer: A) Leaching

9. What is the process of land degradation due to the removal of topsoil by natural agents?

A) Erosion
B) Diastrophism
C) Deposition
D) Exfoliation
✅ Answer: A) Erosion

10. The process of breaking down of rocks due to temperature changes is known as:

A) Carbonation
B) Frost wedging
C) Exfoliation
D) Leaching

✅ Answer: C) Exfoliation
 Water in the Atmosphere – Class 11 NCERT Notes
1. Introduction

 The atmosphere contains water vapour, which varies from 0 to 4% by volume.

 Water vapour plays a crucial role in weather phenomena such as cloud formation, rainfall,
and storms.

 Water is exchanged between the atmosphere, oceans, and continents through evaporation,
transpiration, condensation, and precipitation.

2. Humidity

 Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the air.

 Expressed in different ways:

A. Absolute Humidity

 The actual amount of water vapour in a given volume of air.

 Measured in grams per cubic meter (g/m³).

 Changes with temperature and air pressure.

B. Relative Humidity (RH)

 The percentage of moisture present in air compared to what it can hold at a given
temperature.

 Higher over oceans, lower over continents.

C. Dew Point

 The temperature at which air becomes saturated (100% RH) and water vapour starts
condensing.

3. Evaporation and Condensation

A. Evaporation

 The process by which liquid water converts into water vapour.

 Influenced by:

o Temperature (higher temperature → faster evaporation)

o Humidity (low humidity → more evaporation)

o Wind speed (stronger winds → more evaporation)

o Air pressure (low pressure → more evaporation)

B. Condensation

 The process of water vapour turning into liquid water.

 Happens when air cools and loses heat.

 Condensation requires hygroscopic nuclei (dust, salt, smoke).

4. Forms of Condensation

Form Description Conditions for Formation

Water droplets forming on cool surfaces (grass, Clear sky, calm air, high RH, temp. above
Dew
leaves). freezing.

Ice crystals forming when temp. drops below

Frost Same as dew but temp. below freezing.
0°C.

Fog Cloud-like mist at ground level. Rapid cooling of moist air.

Mist Similar to fog but has more moisture. Common in mountains.

Smog Fog + Smoke (pollutants). Urban areas with industrial emissions.

5. Clouds

 Clouds are masses of water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air.

 Formed when moist air rises, expands, cools, and condenses.

 Classified based on height, appearance, and density.

Types of Clouds

Type Appearance Height

Cirrus Thin, wispy, feathery 8,000-12,000m (High altitude)

Cumulus Cotton-like, fluffy 4,000-7,000m (Medium altitude)

Stratus Layered, covers large sky portions Low altitude

Nimbus Dark, dense, brings rain Low to middle levels

Combination Clouds:

 Cirrostratus, Cirrocumulus → High clouds.

 Altostratus, Altocumulus → Middle clouds.

 Stratocumulus, Nimbostratus → Low clouds.

 Cumulonimbus → Thunderstorm clouds (vertical development).

6. Precipitation

 The falling of condensed water from the atmosphere to the Earth.

 Can be liquid (rain) or solid (snow, hail, sleet).

Forms of Precipitation

Type Description

Rainfall Liquid water falling from clouds.

Snowfall Water vapour crystallizing into snowflakes.

Sleet Frozen raindrops (forms when rain passes through cold air).

Hail Ice pellets formed by strong updrafts in thunderstorms.

7. Types of Rainfall

Rainfall occurs due to three main mechanisms:

A. Convectional Rainfall

 Process:

o Sun heats the ground → air rises → cools → condenses → rain.

 Common in: Equatorial regions (daily afternoon showers).

 Cloud type: Cumulonimbus (thunderstorm clouds).

B. Orographic (Relief) Rainfall

 Process:

o Moist air meets mountains → rises → cools → condenses → rain on windward side.

o Leeward side remains dry (Rain shadow area).

 Example: Western Ghats (India), Andes Mountains (South America).

C. Cyclonic (Frontal) Rainfall

 Process:

o Warm and cold air masses collide, causing warm air to rise → condenses → rain.

 Common in: Mid-latitude temperate regions.

8. World Distribution of Rainfall

General Trends:

1. Equatorial regions receive heavy rainfall (200+ cm annually).

2. Coastal areas get more rainfall than inland areas.

 3. Continental interiors receive moderate (50-100 cm) to low (<50 cm) rainfall.

4. Mountainous areas receive orographic rainfall on windward slopes.

5. Rain-shadow regions (like the Thar Desert) receive very little rainfall.

Precipitation Zones:

 High Rainfall: Equatorial regions, Monsoon lands, Western coasts in temperate zones.

 Moderate Rainfall: Interior of continents, Coastal regions.

 Low Rainfall: Deserts, high latitudes, rain-shadow areas.

Conclusion

 Water in the atmosphere exists in three forms: gas (water vapour), liquid (rain), and solid
(snow, hail).

 Processes like evaporation, condensation, and precipitation maintain the hydrological

cycle.

 Understanding these processes helps predict weather patterns, monsoons, and climate
changes.

1. What is the percentage of water vapour in the atmosphere?

A) 0 to 2%
B) 0 to 4%
C) 1 to 5%
D) 3 to 6%

✅ Answer: B) 0 to 4%

2. The actual amount of water vapour present in the air is known as:

A) Relative Humidity
B) Absolute Humidity
C) Specific Humidity
D) Dew Point

✅ Answer: B) Absolute Humidity

3. When air holds moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature, it is called:

A) Absolute Humidity
B) Supersaturated Air
C) Saturated Air
D) Relative Humidity

✅ Answer: C) Saturated Air

4. The temperature at which air becomes saturated and condensation begins is called:

A) Frost Point
B) Dew Point
C) Evaporation Point
D) Boiling Point

✅ Answer: B) Dew Point

5. What are the tiny particles in the air that help condensation called?

A) Water Droplets
B) Fog Particles
C) Hygroscopic Condensation Nuclei
D) Ice Crystals

✅ Answer: C) Hygroscopic Condensation Nuclei

6. Which of the following clouds are feathery and formed at high altitudes?

A) Cumulus
B) Stratus
C) Nimbus
D) Cirrus

✅ Answer: D) Cirrus

7. Which type of rainfall occurs when warm air rises, expands, cools, and condenses to form
clouds?

A) Orographic Rainfall
B) Cyclonic Rainfall
C) Convectional Rainfall
D) Frontal Rainfall

✅ Answer: C) Convectional Rainfall

8. The leeward side of a mountain, which remains dry due to orographic rainfall, is called:

A) Windward Side
B) Rain Shadow Area
C) Monsoon Region
D) Saturated Zone

✅ Answer: B) Rain Shadow Area

9. Which form of precipitation consists of ice pellets formed in layers?

A) Snow
B) Sleet
C) Hail
D) Frost

✅ Answer: C) Hail

10. Which region receives the highest annual rainfall?

A) Deserts
B) Equatorial Regions
C) Temperate Regions
D) Polar Regions

✅ Answer: B) Equatorial Regions

 World Climate and Climate Change – Class 11 NCERT
Notes

1. Introduction

 The world climate is studied by organizing data on temperature and rainfall.

 There are three ways to classify climate:

1. Empirical classification – Based on temperature and rainfall (e.g., Koeppen’s

system).

2. Genetic classification – Based on causes of climate.

3. Applied classification – Used for specific purposes.

2. Koeppen’s Climate Classification

 Developed by V. Koeppen, based on temperature and rainfall patterns.

 Major climatic groups (5 types):

Climate Type Symbol Main Feature

Tropical A Warm climate, no cold month.

Dry B More evaporation than rainfall.

Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) C Mild winters and warm summers.

Cold Snow Forest (Continental) D Cold winters, snowfall.

Polar E Always cold, below 10°C.

Highland H Cold due to high altitude.

3. Tropical Climates (A)

 Found near the equator (0°-30° N & S).

 Always warm and humid due to high temperatures and rainfall.

Types of Tropical Climate:

1. Tropical Wet Climate (Af)

o Found in Amazon Basin, Central Africa, Indonesia.

o Rainfall throughout the year (daily afternoon showers).

o Dense evergreen forests grow here.

 2. Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

o Found in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, parts of Brazil.

o Heavy summer rainfall, dry winters.

3. Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)

o Found in parts of Brazil, Central Africa, India.

o Distinct wet and dry seasons.

o Grasslands (Savanna) grow here.

4. Dry Climates (B)

 Less rainfall, mostly deserts and grasslands.

 Found in Africa, Middle East, Australia, western USA.

Types of Dry Climate:

1. Subtropical Steppe (BSh) – Semi-arid region, some grasses grow.

2. Subtropical Desert (BWh) – Very dry, hot days, cold nights (e.g., Sahara Desert).

3. Mid-latitude Steppe (BSk) – Dry but cool (e.g., Central Asia).

4. Mid-latitude Desert (BWk) – Extremely dry and cold winters (e.g., Gobi Desert).

5. Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climates (C)

 Found between 30°-50° latitude, mainly in USA, China, Europe.

 Mild winters and warm summers.

Types of Mid-Latitude Climates:

1. Humid Subtropical (Cfa, Cwa)

o India (North Plains), China, South USA.

o Hot, humid summers and mild winters.

2. Mediterranean Climate (Cs)

o Spain, Italy, California, Chile, Australia.

o Hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters.

3. Marine West Coast (Cfb)

o UK, New Zealand, Canada.

o Rainfall throughout the year, cool summers.

6. Cold Snow Forest (D) – Continental Climates

 Found in Northern Europe, Russia, Canada.

 Cold winters with snow, short summers.

Types of Continental Climates:

1. Cold Climate with Humid Winter (Df)

o USA, Russia, Japan.

o Rain/snow throughout the year.

2. Cold Climate with Dry Winter (Dw)

o Siberia, China, Mongolia.

o Severe winters, summer rain.

7. Polar Climates (E)

 Found in Antarctica, Greenland, Arctic regions.

 Always cold, below 10°C all year.

Types of Polar Climate:

1. Tundra Climate (ET) – Short summers, frozen ground (permafrost).

2. Ice Cap Climate (EF) – Permanent ice and snow (e.g., Antarctica).

8. Highland Climates (H)

 Found in high mountains (Himalayas, Andes, Alps).

 Temperature decreases with altitude.

9. Climate Change

 The Earth’s climate has changed naturally over millions of years.

 Causes of past climate changes:

o Sunspot activity (changes in solar energy).

o Volcanic eruptions (dust blocks sunlight).

o Changes in Earth’s orbit (Milankovitch cycles).

Recent Climate Changes:

 The 1990s were the warmest decade in recent history.

 1998 was the hottest year of the century.

  Droughts, floods, and rising sea levels are increasing.

10. Global Warming & Greenhouse Effect

 Greenhouse Effect: Gases trap heat and warm the Earth.

 Main Greenhouse Gases (GHGs):

1. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) – From fossil fuels, deforestation.

2. Methane (CH₄) – From agriculture, cattle, landfills.

3. Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) – From industries, fertilizers.

4. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – Destroy ozone layer.

Effects of Global Warming:

 Melting of glaciers → rising sea levels.

 Extreme weather events (storms, droughts, heatwaves).

 Loss of biodiversity and food shortages.

11. International Efforts to Stop Global Warming

 Kyoto Protocol (1997) – Countries agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

 Paris Agreement (2015) – Aims to limit global warming below 2°C.

13. Conclusion

 The Earth’s climate varies based on temperature and rainfall.

 Global warming is a serious issue due to rising greenhouse gases.

 Governments and individuals must act to reduce pollution and protect the environment.

1. What is Koeppen’s climate classification based on?

A) Vegetation and climate relationship

B) Wind patterns
C) Ocean currents
D) Latitude only

✅ Answer: A) Vegetation and climate relationship

2. Which of the following is NOT a major climate group in Koeppen’s system?

A) Tropical (A)
B) Dry (B)
C) Humid Subtropical (H)
D) Cold (E)

✅ Answer: C) Humid Subtropical (H)

3. In which type of climate does the annual temperature always remain above 18°C?

A) Polar (E)
B) Dry (B)
C) Tropical (A)
D) Cold Snow Forest (D)

✅ Answer: C) Tropical (A)

4. Which of the following climate types experiences a dry summer and wet winter?

A) Mediterranean Climate (Cs)

B) Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb)
C) Tundra Climate (ET)
D) Tropical Wet Climate (Af)

✅ Answer: A) Mediterranean Climate (Cs)

5. Which region is known for its steppe climate (BSh or BSk)?

A) Amazon Basin
B) Sahara Desert
C) Central Asia
D) Greenland

✅ Answer: C) Central Asia

6. Which type of climate is characterized by permanently frozen subsoil (permafrost)?

A) Humid Subtropical (Cfa)

B) Steppe (BSh)
C) Tundra (ET)
D) Ice Cap (EF)

✅ Answer: C) Tundra (ET)

7. What is the main cause of global warming?

A) Sunspot activity
B) Increasing greenhouse gases
C) Volcanic eruptions
D) Changes in Earth’s orbit

✅ Answer: B) Increasing greenhouse gases

8. Which gas is the biggest contributor to the Greenhouse Effect?

A) Methane (CH₄)
B) Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
C) Nitrous oxide (N₂O)
D) Ozone (O₃)

✅ Answer: B) Carbon dioxide (CO₂)

9. Which international agreement was signed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions?

A) Montreal Protocol
B) Kyoto Protocol
C) Paris Agreement
D) Rio Summit

✅ Answer: B) Kyoto Protocol

10. Which of the following is a result of global warming?

A) Decrease in sea level

B) Increase in polar ice caps
C) More frequent extreme weather events
D) Lower temperatures worldwide

✅ Answer: C) More frequent extreme weather events

 Water (Oceans) – Class 11 NCERT Notes

1. Introduction

 Earth is called the "Blue Planet" because 71% of its surface is covered by water.

 Most of the Earth's water is in oceans, with a small percentage in glaciers, rivers, lakes, and
groundwater.

 Water moves through the hydrological cycle, which includes evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, and runoff.

2. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)

 The hydrological cycle is the movement of water between oceans, land, and the
atmosphere.
  Water exists in three forms:

1. Liquid (Oceans, rivers, lakes)

2. Solid (Glaciers, ice caps)

3. Gas (Water vapour in the atmosphere)

Main Processes of the Water Cycle:

Process Description

Evaporation Water changes into vapour due to heat.

Condensation Water vapour cools and forms clouds.

Precipitation Rain, snow, or hail falls from clouds.

Runoff Water flows into rivers, lakes, and oceans.

 About 59% of water that falls on land returns to the atmosphere through evaporation.

 The total amount of water on Earth remains constant, but demand for fresh water is
increasing.

3. Relief of the Ocean Floor

 The ocean floor is not flat; it has features like mountains, trenches, and plains.

 The five major oceans:

o Pacific Ocean (largest and deepest)

o Atlantic Ocean

o Indian Ocean

o Southern Ocean

o Arctic Ocean

Divisions of the Ocean Floor:

1. Continental Shelf

o Shallowest part of the ocean, extending from land.

o Covered with sediments from rivers and glaciers.

o Width varies (e.g., Siberian Shelf is 1,500 km wide).

o Rich in marine life and contains oil and gas reserves.

2. Continental Slope

o Steep slope that connects the continental shelf to the deep ocean.

o Depth: 200 m to 3,000 m.

 o Canyons and trenches are found here.

3. Deep Sea Plain

o Flat, smooth region of the ocean floor.

o Depth: 3,000 to 6,000 m.

o Covered with fine sediments (clay, silt).

4. Oceanic Deeps (Trenches)

o Deepest parts of the ocean (up to 11,000 m deep).

o Formed due to tectonic movements.

o Mariana Trench (Pacific Ocean) is the deepest trench.

4. Minor Relief Features of the Ocean Floor

Feature Description

Mid-Oceanic
Underwater mountains formed by tectonic activity. Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Ridge

Underwater volcanic mountain (does not reach the surface). Example: Emperor
Seamount
Seamount (Pacific Ocean).

Submarine
Deep valleys on the ocean floor. Example: Hudson Canyon (USA).
Canyon

Guyot Flat-topped underwater mountain, formed by subsidence.

Atoll Circular coral reef surrounding a lagoon (common in tropical oceans).

5. Temperature of Ocean Waters

 Oceans absorb and release heat slowly, which helps regulate the Earth's climate.

Factors Affecting Ocean Temperature:

1. Latitude – Temperature decreases from equator to poles.

2. Land and Water Distribution – Northern Hemisphere oceans are warmer due to more land.

3. Wind – Winds can move warm or cold water, affecting temperature.

4. Ocean Currents – Warm currents increase temperature (e.g., Gulf Stream), while cold
currents decrease temperature (e.g., Labrador Current).

Vertical Distribution of Temperature:

 Surface water is the warmest due to sunlight.

 Temperature decreases rapidly up to 200m depth.

  Thermocline (100-1,000m depth) – Layer where temperature drops sharply.

 Deep Ocean (below 1,000m) – Very cold (close to 0°C).

6. Salinity of Ocean Water

 Salinity refers to the amount of salt in seawater.

 Measured in parts per thousand (ppt or ‰).

 Average salinity of oceans: 35 ppt (35g of salt per 1,000g of seawater).

 Salinity above 24.7 ppt is considered saltwater.

Factors Affecting Salinity:

1. Evaporation – Increases salinity.

2. Precipitation (rainfall) – Reduces salinity.

3. Rivers and Ice Melting – Add freshwater, reducing salinity.

4. Ocean Currents and Winds – Move salty or fresh water to different areas.

Salinity Levels in Different Seas:

 Highest salinity: Dead Sea (238 ppt), Great Salt Lake (220 ppt).

 Lowest salinity: Baltic Sea (due to river water influx).

 Red Sea (41 ppt) – High salinity due to evaporation.

 Indian Ocean: 35 ppt on average.

Vertical Distribution of Salinity:

 Surface salinity changes due to evaporation and river inflow.

 Deep ocean salinity is stable.

 Halocline (100-1,000m depth) – Layer where salinity changes rapidly.

8. Conclusion

 The hydrological cycle maintains Earth's water balance.

 The ocean floor has complex relief features like ridges, trenches, and plains.

 Temperature and salinity vary across oceans, affecting marine life and climate.

 Understanding ocean currents, salinity, and temperature is essential for climate studies and
resource management.
1. What percentage of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans?

A) 50%
B) 60%
C) 71%
D) 80%

✅ Answer: C) 71%

2. Which of the following is NOT a process in the hydrological cycle?

A) Evaporation
B) Precipitation
C) Hydration
D) Condensation

✅ Answer: C) Hydration

3. The deepest part of the ocean is known as:

A) Continental Shelf
B) Abyssal Plain
C) Oceanic Ridge
D) Trench

✅ Answer: D) Trench

4. The largest and deepest ocean in the world is:

A) Atlantic Ocean
B) Indian Ocean
C) Pacific Ocean
D) Arctic Ocean

✅ Answer: C) Pacific Ocean

5. Which of the following is a major division of the ocean floor?

A) Guyot
B) Atoll
C) Continental Slope
D) Submarine Canyon
✅ Answer: C) Continental Slope

6. The rapid decrease in ocean temperature with depth is known as:

A) Halocline
B) Thermocline
C) Pycnocline
D) Isotherm

✅ Answer: B) Thermocline

7. The highest salinity is found in which of the following seas?

A) Baltic Sea
B) Black Sea
C) Dead Sea
D) North Sea

✅ Answer: C) Dead Sea

8. What is the average salinity of ocean water?

A) 20 ppt
B) 25 ppt
C) 30 ppt
D) 35 ppt

✅ Answer: D) 35 ppt

9. Which ocean current increases temperature near the eastern coast of North America?

A) California Current
B) Labrador Current
C) Gulf Stream
D) Canary Current

✅ Answer: C) Gulf Stream

10. The feature formed by the accumulation of coral reefs in the ocean is called:

A) Seamount
B) Guyot
C) Atoll
D) Ridge

✅ Answer: C) Atoll