Lesson 1: Philosophical Perspective on Self

Philosophy
 Derived from the Greek words “Philos” and “Sophia”, which literally means “Love of Wisdom”.
 It is the study of acquiring knowledge through rational thinking and inquiries that involves answering
questions regarding the nature and existence of man and the world.
 It is imperative to look into the different perspectives of philosophers and their notions of what the “self” is,
its nature and how it is formed in order to have a better picture on how people develop their behaviors,
attitude and actions and to be able to identify and understand who we are and how we came to be.

Socrates: Know Yourself

 Principally concerned with man
 His philosophy underlies the importance of the notion “knowing oneself”
 Man’s goal is to obtain happiness; this motivates man to act towards or avoid negative repercussions in our
lives
 To fully know oneself, a person will be able to achieve happiness
 “Possession of knowledge is virtue, ignorance is a depravity”; a person’s acceptance of ignorance is the
beginning of acquisition of knowledge
 One must first have the humility to acknowledge one’s ignorance to know what he is lacking and what he
needs to know.
 The first philosopher who engaged in systematic questioning about the self (Socratic Method).

Plato: The Ideal Self

 Father of the Academy (place where learning and sharing of knowledge happens)
 Student of Socrates and affirmed that the unexamined life is not worth living
 He said that a person who is a follower of truth and wisdom will not be tempted by vices and will always be
just
 he believed in the division of a person’s body and soul (dualism)
 Presented the idea that the soul is divided into three parts
 Appetitive soul – part of the person driven by desire and need to satisfy oneself
 Spirited soul – attributed to the courageous part of the person; one who wants to do something to right the
wrongs that they observed
 Rational soul – last part of the soul that is believed to be the driver of our lives; this is the part that thinks
and plans for the future; the conscious mind; it decides what to do and when to do it

St. Augustine: Love and Justice as the foundation of the Individual Self
 A Saint and a Philosopher of the church, St. Augustine follows the idea that God encompasses us all, that
everything will be better if we are with God.
 He combined the platonic ideas into Christianity perspective.
 The body is bound to die on earth and the soul is to anticipate living eternally in communion with God.
 He believes that a virtuous life is the dynamism of love. Loving God means loving one‟s fellowmen; and
loving one‟s fellowmen denotes never doing any harm to another
 St. Augustine while integrating the teaching of the church in his philosophy and establishing our sense of self
with God which we cannot achieve with our bodies since the limitation of our senses in truly understanding
the essence of our existence and role in the world is limited.

Thomas Aquinas: Angelic doctor

 Adapting some ideas from Aristotle, Aquinas said that indeed, man is composed of two parts: matter and
form.
 What makes a human person a human person is his essence.
 Like Aristotle, the soul is what animates the body; it is what makes us humans.
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Lecture Notes for GEC 101 Understanding the Self
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Rene Descartes: Cogito ergo sum
 He conceived of the human person as having a body and a mind.
 For him, the body and its perceptions cannot fully be trusted or can easily be deceived,
 Rene thought that the only thing that one cannot doubt is the existence of the self, for even if one doubts
oneself, that only proves that there is a doubting self, a thing that thinks and therefore, that cannot be
doubted.
 To sum, although the mind and the body are independent of each other and serve their own function, man
must use his own mind and thinking abilities to investigate, analyze, experiment, and develop himself.

David Hume: The self is the bundle theory of mind

 He is an empiricist who believes that one can know only through the senses and experiences
 Hume posits that self is nothing else but a bundle of impressions
 According to him, there is no permanent “self”, that since our impressions of things based from our
experiences and from such impressions we can create our ideas and knowledge which leads to the argument
that since our impression and ideas change, it may improve or totally be replaced
 Thus, the self is simply a collection of all experiences with a particular being.

Immanuel Kant: Respect for Self

 Kant responded to Hume’s work by trying to establish that the collection of impressions and different
contents is what it only takes to define a person.
 Kant argued that the awareness of different emotions that we have, impressions and behaviour is only a part
of our self
 we are not only an object that perceives and reacts to whatever it is that we are experiencing, we also have
the capabilities to understand beyond those experiences and be able to think and have a clear identification
who we are and establish a sense of self that is unique and distinct from others.

John Locke: Personal Identity

 His work on the self is most represented by the concept “Tabula Rasa” which means a Blank Slate
 John Locke does not disregard the experiences of the person in the identification and establishment of who
we are as a person.
 He stated that a person is born knowing nothing and that is susceptible to stimulation and accumulation of
learning from the experiences, failures, references, and observations of the person.
 he process of the mind to absorb information and accumulate knowledge may imply that as a person to be
able to be whom we want to be

Lesson 2: Anthropological Perspective of the Self

Anthropology

 Anthropology is a systematic exploration of human biological and cultural diversity

 Study of human kind in all times and places. (deals with the study of culture)
 Study of human beings and their ancestors through time and space in relation to a physical character
environmental and social relations and culture.
 Focuses on the evolution of individuals and their societies as well as specific culture tools.
 Explores the interconnectedness and interdependence of human cultural experiences in all places and ages.
 Anthropology started with the study of primitive or non –literate culture groups
 Studies various societies in different geographical settings

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The academic discipline of anthropology, or “four-field” anthropology, studies human species and its immediate
ancestors includes four main sub disciplines or subfields - sociocultural, archeological, biological and linguistic
anthropology. Each sub discipline studies adaptation, the process which organisms cope with the environmental.

The Subdisciplines of Anthropology

 Cultural Anthropology - the study of human society and culture which describes, analyzes, interprets and
explains social and cultural similarities and differences. It explores the diversity of the present and the past.
Ethnography and ethnology are two different activities which can study and interpret cultural diversity.

Ethnography requires fieldwork to collect data, often descriptive and specific to group.

Ethnology uses data collected by a series of researches, usually synthetic and comparative.

 Archeological Anthropology - reconstructs, describes and interprets human behavior and cultural patterns
through material remains. These materials remain such as plant, animal and ancient garbage provides stories
about utilization and actions.

 Biological, or Physical Anthropology - focuses on these special interest, human evolution as revealed by the
fossil, human genetics, human growth and development, human biological plasticity and the biology,
evolution, behavior and social life of monkeys, apes and other nonhuman primates.

 Linguistic Anthropology - studies language in its social and cultural context across space and over time.
Universal features of language are analyzed and association between language and culture are evaluated.. It
also studies how speech changes in social situations and over time.

What is the anthropology concept of the self?

In the studying the self, anthropology examines the developmental advancements society has made and how they
have impacted people who existed within the society. Example the millennial generation witnessed the birth of the
internet. Having experienced the transition between the analog and digital technologies, they are more adopt in
using these tools. Thus, to understand one generation, the events and milestones that define this age must be
taken into account. The past generation should also be observed.
The self is both a biological and a cultural entity. The traditional anthropological understanding of the self is
that the self in an animal species which underwent the process of biological evolutions and has shared
characteristics with other living animals the hominids in particular.
The self is believed to have evolved from apes some 33 million years and in the evolutionary process the self
- traced his/her origin from hominid species “homosapiens”. Since the self has better development in terms of brain
with billion neurons, and adaptation to the environment for survival, the self develops a culture resulting in
behavioral changes. The self is a living animal but superior to other animals due to certain factors, namely;
A. Physical Aspects (self as the only animal with a larger brain capacity making him/her a rational animal; the
only animal that can stand straight allowing him/her to have better mobility in doing things etc.)

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 B. Social Aspects (self uses language and symbol in dynamic complicated and yet systematic manner allowing
him/her to communicate and preserve history knowledge, culture etc. can cooperate with others in a
systematic manner in larger cooperation; and invests new things for survival)
2 Concepts in Anthropology
Culture is traditionally defined as system of human behavior and thought. This covers all customs, tradition
and capabilities of humans as they function in society. In other words, cultures are those complex structures of
knowledge, beliefs, arts, religion, morals, laws, language, traditional practices and all other aspects needed by
human to function in society.
1. Culture is symbolic – when our ancestors learned to use tools and symbols to originate meaning of
significant events in life and in society, these tools and symbols become an integral part of culture. The
burial sites, ancestral homes, landmarks of significant and historical events, the rituals, customary actions
and even some natural phenomenon are all part of one’s culture.
2. Culture is learned and in very much integrated in one’s customs and beliefs. It is engrained in the patterns
and systems of one’s life. Hence, if culture considers all aspects and elements of the self, people must be on
guard that culture can be adoptive or maladaptive. Communities shall continue to assess whether the
process, rituals and customary actions are still relevant and still beneficial to the development of the
community. Adaptive culture shall continue to manifest the key central values that the individual and the
community event to demonstrate. On the other hand, communities may also try to get rid of the cultural
practices that will only extinguish the identity and good will of the community.
In order to do this, we have to understand the concept of enculturation – it is defined as the transmission of
culture from one generation to the next. Unlike biological hereditary transmission, cultural transmission is done
through.
1. Observation
2. Use of language
3. Adaption
4. Rituals
5. Formal and Informal Education
Every member of the community will then distinguish themselves from other communities because
of the differences in the way people do things in their lives.
Language has something to do with our culture. It is a salient part of culture and ultimately, has a
tremendous effect in the crafting of the self. This might also be one of the reasons why cultural divide spells out
differences in how one regards oneself. In one research, it was found that North Americans are more likely to
attribute being unique to themselves and claim that they are better than most people in doing what they love doing.
Japanese people have been seen to display a degree of modesty. If one binds himself born and reared in a particular
culture, one definitely tries to fit in a particular mole. If a self in born into a particular society or culture, the self will
have to adjust according to its exposure.
The Self and Person in Contemporary Anthropology
The anthropology self takes a holistic dimensions of the individual person. It consider both the biological and
environmental aspects of the person. The genetic component plays a significant role in the cultural component of
an individual anthropologists even suggest that the genes of the person living in a particular community are already
a necessary component for the enculturation of the person. In the same way, environmental exposure is also a vital
component in the creation of the cultural self. Some anthropologist suggest that the environmental exposure
starts soon after birth. However, contemporary anthropologists suggest that the environmental exposure starts
during conception. The child inside the mother’s womb already hears the language, tastes the food and feels the
mother’s emotion. These experiences then are satisfied as soon as the child born.
The growing years of the child is very crucial in the Anthropological perspective. This is the time when the
child develops the psychological construct of dependency or in depending. In many Western Cultures where
independence is the cultural emphasis, the child is usually provided with a room and is trained to be independent
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by giving less physically contract from parent to carers. On the sense of independence on significant others and the
immediate community.

Culture

Culture refers to customary behavior and beliefs that are passed on through enculturation (Kottak, 2008), wherein
enculturation is the social process which culture is learned and transmitted.
Culture is a social process that is learned and passes from generation to the next.
Everybody is cultured.
Cultures oblige people, yet the activities of people can change cultures.

Csordas (1999) elaborated that the human body is not essential for anthropological study but the paradigm of
embodiment can be explored in the understanding culture and the self.
Geertz (1973) described culture as "a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of
which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life"

The interpretation of the symbols in each culture is essential which gives meaning to one’s action. Each culture has
its own symbols and has its own meaning; one must need to comprehend those meanings keeping in mind the end
goal to understand the culture. One must disconnect the components of culture, discover the relationship among
those components, and portray the entire framework in some broad way.

Culture is derived from the latin word “cultus” which means “care” a care and attention provided to human person
as he grows into a mature person.
Culture is a very powerful force that affects the lives of the members of a society. Individual’s culture
becomes immediately evident by his clothing, food, beliefs, mannerism etc. Culture tells what the individual does,
what to do and how he should do those things and how he should relate to other people. It is culture that makes
man different from one place to another.
Kinds of Culture
1. Material Culture- concrete and tangible things that man creates and uses that includes dwelling units, tools,
weapons, clothing’s, books, machines, artefacts, relics, fossils etc. These concrete things increase the
person’s chances for survival and enrich the life.
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 2. Non – material Culture- this refers to non – material things or intangible objects which the person uses,
follows, preference, or strives to conform. It includes knowledge, beliefs, laws, lifestyles, techniques, ideas,
customs, and behaviour’s. These things re inherent in culture.
Function of Culture
It serve as a “trademark” of the people in society. It serves as a distinguishing mark of one group of people
to another. It gives meaning to one’s existence. There is no society that does not have culture. Through culture, the
existence of the members of a society becomes more meaningful and purposive.
Culture promotes meaning to individual existence. Every member of the society has aspirations in life. It is
the culture where the member belongs that shapes his guest for life’s meaning and direction.
Culture provides social solidarity. It develops loyalty and devotion for a common rational pride.
Positive or Acceptable/ Beneficial
Balikatan System – when an individual is confronted with a problem or difficulty, everybody shares the
burden of helping the person who is need assistance. Example, giving relief in cash/ kind to person starch by
calamities.
Bayanihan System – a certain task is effectively and easily completed if everybody shares is time, effort and
money to expedite the completion of a task. Example, cleaning the area for the putting of a basketball court; digging
a drainage can by the barangay people.
Pakikisama or Conformity
Smooth Interpersonal Relationship (SIR) – is characterized by the use of go – between and euphemism. Example, act
as a middleman to an embracing request such as loan, a complaint it to avoid “hiya” or a face to face confrontation.
Pakikiramay - sympathetic attitude to another person (di ka nag iisa)
Compadre or Comadre System – “Ninong and Ninang” sponsors are usually prominent people in the
community who can help their inaanak in times of needs.
“Utang na Loob” or Sense of Gratitude
Desire for Socio-Economic Improvement – parents would sacrifice comfort and spend their money or even borrow
money just they can send their children to school. Older brother/ sister marriage to be able to help to pay for the
schooling of their younger siblings.
Fiesta Celebration – serve very important purposes; it’s strengthen family loyalty and unity. It serves to
acquire new friends and allies, may heal individual’s animosity and misunderstanding.
Has negative affects when the host incur so much debt that he could hardly repay. The celebration is centred
more on material aspects than on its spiritual significance.
Negative or Unacceptable Cultural Values and Practices
Indolence – many Filipinos are lazy, lacking of initiative and ambition. Their attitude is like the legendary
“Juan Tamad”. They don’t want to labor and soil their hands with dirt.
The “Ningas Cugon” attitude – this is an attitude with great interest and enthusiasm in the beginning but
eventually dies down at the end.
Manana Habit – this is the tomorrow – attitude or procrastination attitude. People set aside their work for
tomorrow what they can already do today.
“Bahala na” attitude – this is a kind of fatalism in which the person leaves everything to fate. He lets fate
control his destiny and decides his success. This term comes from “Bahala na” which means that God will take care
of everything.

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 Indulging in Gambling – this is one favourite pastime of Filipinos which has more negative effects than
positive ones. Example Juleteng, Tong its, froton etc.
“Hiya” Complex – this is an uncomfortable feeling of being found in an unacceptable position or
uncomfortable feeling of doing something not socially acceptable, accompanied by a feeling of shae or
embarrassment.
Amor Propio – this associated closely with “hiya. It is Spanish term meaning self-love, or self-esteem, the
fear of losing social acceptance.
“Lagay” and “Areglo” – there are established socio-political connections for some material consideration to
be able to obtain favors.
“Palakasan” scheme – obtaining a job, getting promotion, transfer and other special privileges and favours
are often by “Palakasan”. Use of euphemistic expression – is stating unpleasant opinion, truth or request as
pleasantly as possible to please another person so as not to directly hurt his ego.
The “suerte”, “tadhana”, “malas” and “buenas” forms of fatalism – these are beliefs in fate, predestination,
in horoscope and hula (fortune telling)
The existing of spirits, ghosts, and supernatural beings – the beliefs on these “unseeing beings” still
persistent in our thought and we imagine them to be existing in this material world.
The Gaya – gaya practice – generally imitation is not per second because it is one form of learning especially
if there is a good model to imitate. On the other hand, “gaya-gaya” has a negative value if indicate lack of creativity,
imitative, pioneering spirit or as a consequence of timidity to go into a new field of endeavour and just rely on meek
imitation.
Karma- the Indian words which means “the Law of nature”. The saying “for every action, there is an equal
and opposite reaction” is referred to karma.
The sum up most of these values, beliefs and practices have been integrated or incorporated into the
characteristics of the people in a certain society. Since they have been ingrained and rooted, they are very difficult to
change or eliminate and thus they are being repeated from generation to generation.

Lesson 3: Sociological Perspective of the Self

Sociology

Sociology, or the study of how human society is established, its structure and how it works, the people’s interaction
with each other and the effects they have to one another is an aspect in which we have to consider with regards to
the development of a person. It is also important to understand that the establishment of the “Self” based on social
structures could give us a better understanding of who we are and provide reasons how our interactions can affect
us as a person.

George Herbert Mead is an American Sociologist, and one of the pioneers in the field of social psychology because of
his contributions on the development of the person relating to various social factors. Mead rejected the idea of
biological determination of the self which proposes that an individual already has an established self from the
moment he is born.

The “I” and the “Me”

“Me” are the characteristics, behavior, and or actions done by a person that follows the “generalized others” that
person interacts with
“I” is the reaction of the individual to the attitude of others, as well as the manifestation of the individuality of the
person.

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Mead’s Three Role-playing Stages of Self Development
These stages are the:
 Preparation/Language Stage,
 Play stage, and
 Game stage.

 The Preparatory Stage (Birth – 2 years Old) – According to Mead, during this stage the infant simply imitates
the actions and behaviors of the people that the infant interacts with. Because the child is only mimicking
what he or she observes from his or her environment their actions are only the reflection of what they can
remember without any intention or meaning behind their actions or behavior

 The Play Stage (2 – 6 years old) – for the Play stage, it is the time where children begins to interact with
other with which certain rules apply, these rules often time does not adhere to any set or standards but
rather are rules that are set by the children themselves. Also, this is the stage where the child practices real
life situations through pretend play and is the onset of self- consciousness. The development of the self in
this stage occurs through the preliminary experiences that serves as practice for the child.

 The Game Stage (6-9 years old) – The final stage of self-development according to Mead where are
characterized by the ability of the children to recognize the rules of the game and be able to identify their
roles and the roles of the others that is playing with them. With this, the children at this stage learns the
implications of their actions as well as the understanding or taking into account how one can take into
account the view point of the society on the attitudes and actions.

Lesson 4: The Psychological View of the Self

Most people would say that they do not want to talk about themselves. But in actually, most people like hearing life
stories of another person as a chance to talk about themselves or to relate self to others. The famous line of “Me,
Myself and I” is often used in movies, animation and even in social media- as a caption to pictures or as shout-out.

The psychology of self focuses on the representation of an individual based on his/her experiences. These
experiences are either from the home, school and other groups, organizations or affiliations he/she engaged in.
Seemingly, the ‘self’ is one of the most heavily researched areas in social and personality psychology, where
concepts are introduced that beyond our physical attributes, lies our psychological identity. Questions of ‘who am I?’
or ‘what am I beyond my looks?’ are thoughts of many that continuously search for a deeper sense of self which can
be traced back from some time of human history. “Drawing on caves suggest that sometime during the dawn of
history, human beings began to give serious thought to their nonphysical, psychological selves. With advent of
written history, writers would describe this awareness of self in terms of spirit, psyche, or soul.” (Pajares & Schunck,
2002)

THE SELF AS A COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTION

Cognitive Construction is a cognitive approach that focuses on the mental processes rather than the observable
behaviour. This approach will assist individuals in assimilating new information to their existing knowledge and will
enable to make appropriate modification to their existing intellectual framework to accommodate their new
information.

William James and the Me-Self, I-Self

With the initiative of Wilhelm Wundt, the father of Scientific Psychology, scientific methods in studying what Aguirre
et. al. (2011) mentioned as ‘phenomenon of the consciousness,’ urged interest in further studies of the self and its
role in human behaviour. It is in this time that William James classic distinction between the self as knower (or pure

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ego) and the self as known (or the empirical self) provides as useful scheme within which to view the multitudinous
aspects of self-functioning (oxfordbibliographies.com, 2013)
W. James suggested that “the total self of me ‘Me’, being as it were duplex” is composed of “partly object and partly
subject”. As a consequence, he differentiated between the self as knower, or the “I”, and the self as known, or “Me”.
He referred to the “I” as pure ego and suggested that this component of self is conscious of, and it consists of three
components, one physical or material, one social, and one spiritual (Pajares & Schunck, 2002).

Sigmund Freud: The Psychoanalytic Theory of Self

Freud’s asserts that the human psyche (personality) is structured into three parts (tripartite). The structures--- the id,
ego, and superego---all develop at different stages in person’s life.

These three structures are systems and not physical parts of the brain. Although each part comprises unique
features and contributes to an individual’s behaviour, they interact to form a whole.

Parts of Personality
1. ID (internal desires). Also called internal drives or instinctive drives, it consists of the body’s primitive
biological drives and urges which are concerned only with achieving pleasure and self-satisfaction. Id lives
completely in the unconscious.
2. Ego (reality). It is the “I” part of the individual that gives him/her the sense of his/her own identity. The ego
is the rational part of the personality
3. Superego (conscience). It is the part of the personality concerned with morals, percept, standards, and ideas.
The superego is also the critical faculty of the personality.

Freudian Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud also argues that the development of an individual can be divided into distinct stages characterized by sexual
drives. As a person grows certain areas become sources of pleasure, frustration or both.
1. Oral. From birth to the end of the first year, the mouth becomes the part of the body through which
gratification is secured.
2. Anal (expulsive phase). From the age 2-3 years, the child derives the feelings of pleasure or pain from
defecating. It covers the toilet-training period.
3. Phallic. From the age 3-6 years, the child gets curious about his/her genitals and becomes attached to the
parent of the opposite sex. The attraction of boy to his mother is called Oedipus complex, while that of a girl
to her father is called Electra complex.
4. Latency. From the age of 10-12 years, sexual motivations presumably recede in importance as the child
becomes preoccupied with developing skills and other activities.
5. Genital. After puberty, the deepest feelings of pleasure presumably come from heterosexual relations

Erik Erikson: The Psychosocial Stages of Self- development

Erikson was primarily concerned with how both psychological and social factors affect the development of
individuals. He has formulated eight major stages of development, each posing a unique development task and
simultaneously presenting the individual with a crisis that he/she must overcome (table 1). As defined by Erikson, a
crisis is not “a Threat of Catastrophe but a turning point, a crucial period of increased vulnerability and heightened
potential”. Accordingly, individuals develop a healthy personality by mastering “Life’s outer and inner dangers”.

Table 1.

Basic Period of life Important Relationship Choices/ Outcome

Conflicts/ Life Event with Decisions
Crisis
Trust vs Infancy (birth Feeding Maternal To give in The individual develops a sense of
Mistrust to 18 months) return trust towards the caregiver,
To get especially with the mother’s
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 genuine affection and care. A lack
of this leads to mistrust.
Autonomy Early Toilet Paternal To hold on The individual needs to develop a
vs Shame Childhood (18 training sense of personal control over
and Doubt months to 3 To let go physical skills and a sense of
years) independence. Success leads to
feelings of autonomy; failure
results in feelings of shame and
doubt.
Initiative Preschool (3 Exploration Family To make The individual needs to begin
vs. Guilt to 5 years ) asserting control and power over
To make like the environment. Parents who give
their children freedom in running,
sliding, bike-riding, and skating are
allowing them to develop initiative.
Success in this stage leads to a
sense of purpose. Children who try
to exert too much power
experience disapproval resulting in
a sense of guilt.
Industry vs Elementary School School To make As an individual move into the
Inferiority school age (6 things world of schooling, he/she needs
to 11 years) Neighbourho to cope with new social and
od To make academic demands. Parents and
together teachers who support, reward, and
praise children are encouraging
industry. Success leads to a sense
of competence while failure results
in feelings of inferiority. Those who
reject, ridicule, or ignore children’s
efforts are strengthening feelings
of inferiority.
Identity vs. Adolescence Social Peer group To be oneself As an individual enters
Role (12 to 18 relationships adolescences or teen years, he/she
confusion years) To share needs to develop a series of self
being and personal identity. An
Oneself adolescent tries on many new roles
as he/she feels romantic
involvement, vocational choice,
and adult statuses. When the
adolescent fails to develop a
“centred” identity, he/she
becomes trapped in either role
confusion or negative identity.
Success leads to an ability to stay
true on oneself while failure leads
to a weak sense of self.
Intimacy Young Relationships Partners in To lose As an individual grows as a young
vs. adulthood (19 friendship/se adult, he/she needs to form
Isolation to 40 years) x/ To bind intimate, loving relationships with
competition oneself to other people. Success leads to
others strong relationships while failure
results in loneliness and isolation.

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Generativel Middle Work and Partner To make be Generatively means reaching out
y vs. adulthood (40 Parenthood beyond one’s own immediate
Stagnation to 65 years) To take care concerns to embrace the welfare
of of society and of future
generations. It entails selflessness.
The adult needs to create or
nurture things that will outlast
him/her, often by having children
or creating a positive change that
benefits other people. Success
leads to feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment while failure
results in shallow involvement in
the world.
Integrity vs. Old age/ Reflection on Mankind To be, The older adult needs to look back
Despair maturity (65 life through on life and feel sense of fulfilment.
to death) having been Success at this stage leads to
To face not feelings of wisdom while failure
being results in regret, bitterness, and
despair.

Lesson 5: The Physical Self

The Physical Self

The Biological Blueprint
A crucial aspect of the self is one’s physical features. People are often recognized initially by their physical
features, including the face, bodily structure, height and weight. However, more than the physical attributes, people
should also consider their physical competencies, valuation of physical worth, and perception of beauty.

The physical self is shaped by biological and environmental factors. The physical self, however, is surrounded
by issues associated with health, hygiene, nutrition, and standards of beauty, among others.

Am I beautiful? Do people find me attractive? What can I do to enhance my features? These questions
concern the physical self, which embodies one’s appearance, what one sees in the mirror and what often triggers a
person’s first impressions of another. However, the physical self is not only limited to what can be seen by the naked
eye; underneath the skin is a dynamic system of biological and chemical processes that contribute to one’s physical
features. Body structure, height, weight, skin colour, and other physical characteristics do not just develop at
random; these are triggered by genetic transformations and biological development through heredity.

Heredity is defined as the transmission of traits from parents to offspring. The traits are made up of specific
information embedded within one’s gene, the basic unit of heredity. The manifestation of particular traits can be
attributed to the concepts of genotype and phenotype. Genotype all genetic characteristics refers to the specific
information embedded within one’s genes; not all genotypes translate to an observed physical characteristics. On
the other hand, Phenotype is the physical expression of a particular trait. Genotype can be determined through
blood testing while phenotype can be directly observed. To illustrate, imagine that a man who has fair skin and a
woman who has brown skin produced a brown- skinned male offspring. While you may assume that the new-born
inherited only the skin colour of his mom, a close examination of his genotype may reveal that he also got the gene
for fair skin from his dad. This phenomenon can be attributed to the concept of dominant and recessive genes. The
brown skin of the mother was the dominant gene and that of his dad was the recessive gene; thus, the former
manifested in the child. However, if the child in the future marries a woman who has a recessive gene for fair skin,
their offspring may have fair skin. Dominant and recessive genes are dependent on alleles, which are alternate
versions of particular gene. Since human cells carry two copies of chromosomes, they have two version of each gene.

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Lecture Notes for GEC 101 Understanding the Self
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 Each individual carries 23 pairs of chromosomes, which are threadlike bodies in the nucleus of the cell and
the storage unit of genes. The 23rd pair, also known as sex chromosomes, determines the sex of individual. The XX
combination indicates a female and the XY combination indicates a male. Within each chromosomes are the
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological
development of every individual. The DNA is considered the blueprint of life; thus, no two individuals have the same
DNA. This explains why DNA sample is the most crucial material needed in establishing paternity or maternity or
identifying a suspect in a crime. These cellula components trigger the physical growth and maturation of organisms,
from birth to adulthood. Maturation is known as the completion of growth of a genetic character within an organism
or to unfolding of an individual’s inherent traits or potential. Maturation enables people to walk, run, and talk. It also
results in physical changes that are evident in the adolescent stage.

Environmental Conditioning
While one’s genetic information determines the extent of his or her physical features, it is not the only factor
that influences the physical self. As you grow up, you are exposed to environmental influences that shape your
physical self, including those from your social network, societal expectations, and cultural practices.

Family, being your first your first social group, forms a crucial foundation of your development, including
that of your physical self. Aside from factors of heredity, your family is also primarily responsible for how you take
care of your body. Nutrition and sustenance was initially established by what was cooked in the home. Thus, your
food intake and diet is often determined by the meals you were served. Aside from food, practices on hygiene were
first transmitted by your parents.

As you grow older, you get exposed to a larger social group with new practices and standards. You become
more conscious of your physical appearance. As time goes on, you begin to take note of your height, weight, facial
features and other physical characteristics in comparison to your peers, especially during adolescence. As a result,
you may begin engaging in acts that would make you attractive and acceptable to others. For some girls, these
include choosing the right outfit, wearing the right make –up, and acting more feminine. On the other hand, boys
may begin to have facial hair, learn how to shave, go to the gym, and do other similar activities.

One aspect of physical beauty is a person’s body type. Contemporary media has portrayed slim bodies as the
ideal body type for women and muscular bodies for men. Thus, adolescents indulge in activities that would enable
them to achieve these ideal body types. For some, these activities involve having a healthy lifestyle, eating the right
food, and engaging in sports. However, some adolescents may resort to unhealthy habit just to achieve the ideal
body type. There has been a steady rise of teenagers who have eating disorders, including bulimia and anorexia
nervosa. This phenomenon could be attributed to the obsession of being thin, and may also be triggered by family,
peers, and significant role models. Majority of the victims have been identified as females, but a significant number
are still represented by males. Aside from eating problems, a substantial number have been resorting to cosmetic
surgery to alter certain facial or body features, even among adolescents. While medical professionals do not forbid
such practices, there have been extreme cases of these procedures causing negative life- altering consequences. It is
important to remember that physical beauty is only skin – deep; that what matter is feeling good about oneself and
embracing a healthy perception of one’s physical worth.

The Self as Impacted by the Body

Through the years, the concept of physical self has gained a considerable attention in the fields of
Psychology, Sociology, and Anthropology, including religious and biological or health studies. These disciplines agree
on the premise that the physical self is an important component in the study of the person’s self and identity. As
what William James said, “the self is the sum of all man can call his, which includes his body, family and reputation,
also his clothes and his house.” Such body, family, clothes, and the like are also described by Rusell W. Belk as art of
our Extended Self. But what do we mean y physical self? The concrete or tangible aspect or dimension of the person
which is primarily observed and examined through the body is known as the physical self.

William James, a renowned psychologist and a pioneer of American Sociology, states that the body is the
initial source of sensation and necessary for the origin and maintenance of personality. Erik Ericson also claims that
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experience is anchored in the ground-plan of the body. This is supported by Sigmund Freud who states the physical
body is the core of human experience. Furthermore, Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1945) placed the body at the center of
the human existence, as a way of experiencing the world.

Such ideas make clear to us the fact that the body is the way through which we make sense of the world and
our environment. We experience life through our bodies and senses (sight, smell, touch, etc.), allowing us to
interpret the world around us. However, the body is not merely an object in the world but we are also our bodies in
that the body is the vehicle for our expression in the world. The body is the sight for the articulation of all our
identifications of gender, class, sexuality, race, ethnicity and religion.

The human body is endowed with varied forms of social significance which Sociology has addressed by
asking questions like: To what extent do individuals have control over their own bodies? How significant is the body
to the development and performance of the self in everyday life? What images of the body influence people’s
expectations of themselves and others?”

From the late 1970s to 1980s, Humanities and Sociology developed a new and broader interest in the body.
Sociologists, historians, philosophers, and anthropologists, including scholars from sport studies and medical studies
spoke about this interest on the body which was then called “body culture”. The sociologists, Ulrich Beck and
Anthony Giddens, agree in saying that the body is the only fix-point of “self-identity”.

Studies also show that one of the visible and deeper changes in relation to the modern body concerns the
dress reform and the appearance of the naked body. The change from noble pale skin to suntanned skin as a
“sportive” distinction was not only linked to sport, but had a strong impact on society as a whole. The change of
appreciated body colour reversed the social-bodily distinctions between people and classes, and nudism became a
radical expression of this body-cultural change.

A contrasting model within modern body culture is delivered by mass sports. In gymnastics and fitness
training, the body is disciplined by subjecting it to certain rules of “scientific”, social geometrical or aesthetic order
(Roubal, 2007). In recent years, “body studies” has expanded rapidly, becoming an increasingly popular field of study
within Anthropology, Sociology, and cultural studies (Margo De Mello, 2014).

The Impact of Culture on Body Image and Self-esteem: The Importance of Beauty
Do you consider yourself beautiful? What is your concept of beauty? What is the society’s concept of
beauty? Do these perceptions really matter?

Well dressed, elegant, good-looking, and attractive! These are the words we usually associate with beauty.
As Kenny and Nicolas describe, they are the determining factors shaping beauty. “Attractive children, and adults are
treated more favourably by others in the society.”

“Standards of beauty and appearance are the product of a diverse mix of cultural and historical influences.
Norms of beauty and appearance are tied to ideals of appearance and hard work. Today, the norm or standard of
beauty includes wavy blond hair, light skin and eyes, and a tall and slim form. Physical appearance is dealt with great
importance as in the case presented at the beginning of this topic. It was used as the basis in choosing the more
presentable girl as the bride’s maid of honour in her wedding. Some people have the good fortune to possess
features that adhere to standardized ideals of beauty though nature bestows less-than-perfect physical attributes
upon other such as slightly misshapen noses, protuberant chins, breasts that appear too large or too small. For the
most part, people learn to live with these imperfections. But in several cases, the individual is so dissatisfied with
his/her physical attributes that he/she seeks to alter them through surgical means. The process appears trouble-free,
yet there are many unseen pitfalls. Breast augmentation is the favourite while liposuction is also prevalent. Extra
breast padding is usually considered desirable, whereas the same amount of flesh on the upper arms is regarded as a
detriment. So patient and doctor seek to sculpt a more ideal physique such as breasts, slender but well-formed
biceps, a tiny waist, a round yet toned posterior. Plastic surgery remains most popular among women, maintaining
beautiful bodies Through plastic surgery procedures.

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 The male ideal remains “muscular wash-boards abs, powerful legs, chiselled features.” Needless to say, this
pursuit of perfection puts a huge strain on both genders. “Females in particular receive a massive amount of societal
pressure to conform to conventional beauty standards. Little girls get the message early. They spend hours staring at
themselves at the mirror, wondering if they are good enough for the society. They do whatever they can to make
themselves appear more attractive to others. Is beauty bound up with a dynamic, cultural aesthetic honed in the
ways that members of the group/community/ society are “nurtured” to perceive attractiveness from childhood?”
(Kenny & Nichols)

Now, let’s talk about “body image” and “identity”. Popular interest in body image issues has grown
dramatically in recent years, due to an emphasis on individual responsibility and self-determination in contemporary
society as well as the seemingly limitless capacities of modern medicine; however, body image as a separate field of
academic inquiry is still relatively young. Sukhanova and Thomashoff in “Body Image and Identity in Contemporary
Societies”, bring together contributions from psychoanalysts, psychotherapists, psychiatrists and scholar in the fields
of social sciences and humanities to explore representations of the body in literature and the arts across different
times and cultures. They gave an analysis of the social construction of the ideal body in terms of beauty, gender,
sexuality, race, ethnicity, class and disability, from a broadly psychoanalytic perspective, and traces the mechanisms
which define the role of the physical appearance in the formation of identity and the assumption of social roles.

What do we exactly mean by body image? In this concept, we think of how attractive our body is. It refers to
the person’s perception of the level of attractiveness of his/her body or it can be somebody’s own impression of how
his or her body looks. It may also be our sense of how other people view our bodies. In that sense, body image can
be seen as both internal (personal) and external (social). One’s perception of his or her body elicits either
pleasing/satisfying or unpleasing/unsatisfying feelings. Body image lies at the heart of adolescence and it is the
mental representation of one’s own body, which is a very important aspect of identity.

Along with the concept of body image is the concept of beauty. Beauty is of two types: the inner beauty
which refers to the inner qualities of the person and the external beauty which refers to the physical characteristics
of the person. External beauty focuses on the physical features of the body commonly defined as “a combination of
qualities, which includes shape, colour, or form that aesthetic senses, especially the sight.”

Much effort is exerted to reach the ideal body called “body beautiful” by men which is the admired muscular
“Adonis” body built. The “Coca-Cola” contoured figure for women is equally desired and each one, male or female,
strives to acquire the body of his/her dream. We are in a culture in which beauty is judged by numbers. As
commonly observed, attraction to another’s body increases if that body is symmetrical and in proportion. If the face
is proportionate, we are more likely to notice it and find it beautiful. We even perceive proportional bodies to be
healthier.

Lesson 6: The Sexual Self

THE SEXUAL SELF

Puberty marks the start of sexual development in an individual. Physical changes start and as an individual
continues to adolescence, these changes are highlighted as sex hormones, undergoing physical changes, and
producing feelings that are sexual in nature. Since sex usually a taboo subject, most adolescents are confused with
these feelings; how to handle them, who to ask about these sexual feelings and what is considered normal and
inappropriate sexual responses. The best way to understand these is to learn about human sexuality to get to know
one’s own body and responses and establish her/his Sexual Self.

WHAT IS YOUR SEXUAL SELF? This is the part of yourself where you learn and understand your sexual development
and how people’s sexual activity, beliefs, misconceptions and unlimited access from the internet on sex can
influence your own sexual behaviours and responses. Your sexual self speaks of your sexual health, sexual
orientation, gender identity and expression and values around sexuality.

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 1. Sexual Development
Sexual development is lifelong process that starts at the moment of conception. People are all a little
different from each other, so it makes sense that they don’t all develop in the same way (kidshealth.org,
2008). Sexual development can be predicted as part of the human development but not everyone is
expected to have the same pattern of changes or the same pacing.

1.2 The Human Reproductive Organ

One of the many seemingly magical things about human reproduction is that only one sperm can ever
penetrate an egg. Sex, however, is not just for reproduction – not in humans. That may be its primary
biological mandate, but it serves other purposes as well. It helps strengthen relationships, encourages a man
it stick around to care for his child, and affects not only health but also well – being (Tsiaras, 2006)
1.2. A. The Female Reproductive System.
The ovaries produce 400,000 eggs or so every 28 days. The ovum is 100,000 times larger than the
sperm cell. The egg cell carries the X chromosome. Puberty in girls usually starts between ages 8-13, along with all
the bodily changes(breast, hair, skin, hips, voice) it is also where Menarche (from the Greek word “moon” and
“beginning”), the first menstrual period, would seal the growth spurt and signal the female’s sexual maturity.

1.2. B. The Male Reproductive System.

The testes produce 200 million sperm cells/ spermatozoa every week. It carries X or Y chromosome,
which is the sex-determining cell. In boys, puberty starts around 10-15 years old and explains why some girls look
more mature than boys. The testosterone hormone causes most of the changes in a boy’s body and men need sperm
to produce.

Besides the physical changes (voice, hair, size of penis, larynx), his brain also changes. Unlike women
varying monthly to create menstrual cycles, the hormones in men’s brains are constantly active. This may be the
reason why men are said to think about sex more than women.

1.3. The Basic Biology of Sexual Behaviour; Teen Sexual Behaviour

The change from child to adult is an especially dangerous time for adolescents in our society. From their
earliest years, children watch television shows and movies that insist that “sex appeal” is a personal quality that
people need to develop to the fullest. While adolescents and their parents generally, agree about many issues and
aspects of life, they hold strikingly different views on sex. Parents, based on their perspective from greater
experience, urge caution and restraint. Adolescents, experiencing strong sexual desire for the first time and eager for
all pleasures life can offer, are frequently tempted to throw caution to the wind and indulge. TV, movies, and music
are not the only influences – the Internet provides teens with seemingly unlimited access to information on sex as
well as steady supply of people willing to talk about sex with them. Teens may feel safe because they can remain
anonymous while looking for information on sex. Sexual predators know this and manipulate young people into
online relationships and, later, set up a time and place to meet.

2. Human Sexuality
Sexuality is much more than sexual feelings or sexual intercourse. It is an important part of who a person is
and what she/he will become. It includes all the feelings, thoughts, and behaviours associated with being female or
male, being attractive and being in love, as well as being in relationships that includes enjoyment of the world as we
know it through the five senses; taste, touch, smell, hearing, and sight.

Sexuality in adolescent youth (ages 13 to 19) – Once youth have reached puberty and beyond, they experience
increased the interest in romantic and sexual relationships and in genital sex behaviours. As youth mature, they
experience strong emotional attachments to romantic partners and find it natural to express their feelings within
sexual relationships. There is no way to predict how a particular teenager will act sexually. Overall, most adolescents
explore relationships with one another, fall in and out of love, and participate in sexual intercourse before the age of
20.

1.2 The Chemistry of Lust, Love, and Attachment

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Lecture Notes for GEC 101 Understanding the Self
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 There are physiological and psychological aspects in being turned on, being in love and attached to
another person. The chemistry of lust, love and attachment lies in our brains, which is the human’s most
important “sex organ”. The unexplained mechanism responsible for sexual attraction lies in the brain and
not in the genital areas.
Lust – This is a phase which is driven by the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen- both men and women.
Estrogen and Testosterone are the two basic types of hormones present equally in men and women’s body
that excite the feeling of lust within the brain.
Attraction – This phase is said to be one of the beautiful moments of life. This is the phase when a person
actually starts to feel the love. This is the amazing time when you are truly love – struck and can think of
little else. Scientist think that three main neurotransmitters are involved in this stage; adrenaline, dopamine
and serotonin.
Attachment – is a bond helping the couple to take their relationship to advanced levels? It instigates the
feeling of bearing children and falling in love with them wholeheartedly. Scientist think there might be two
major hormones involved in this feeling of attachment; oxytocin and vasopressin.

What is Sexual Orientation?

Sexual orientation refers to an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men,
women or both sexes. Sexual orientation also refers to a person’s sense of identity based on those attractions,
related behaviours, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions.

What about sexual orientation and coming out during adolescence?

Adolescence is a period when people separate from their parents and families and begin to develop
autonomy. Adolescence can be a period of experimentation, and many youths may question their sexual feelings.
Becoming aware of sexual feelings is a normal development task of adolescence. Sometimes adolescents have same-
sex feelings or experiences that cause confusion about their sexual orientation. This confusion appears to decline
over time, with different outcomes for different individuals. Some adolescents desire and engage in same sex
behaviour but do not identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual, sometimes because of the stigma associated with a non-
heterosexual orientation.

Some adolescents experience continuing feelings of same – sex attraction but do not engage in heterosexual
behaviour for varying lengths of time. Because of the stigma associated with same –sex attraction, many youths
experience same – sex attraction or many years before becoming sexually active with partners of the same sex or
disclosing their attractions to others. For some young people, this process of exploring same sex attractions leads to
a lesbian, gay, or bisexual identity. For some, acknowledging this identity can bring an end to confusion. When these
young people receive the support of parents and others, they are often able to live satisfying and healthy lives and
move through the usual process of adolescent development. The younger a person is when he acknowledges a non –
heterosexual identity, the fewer internal and external resources she or he is likely to have. Therefore, youths who
came out early are particularly in need of support from parents and others. Young people who identify as lesbian,
gay, or bisexual may be more likely to face certain problems, including being bullied and having negative experiences
in school.

These experiences are associated with negative outcomes, such as suicidal thoughts, and high –risk activities,
such as unprotected sex and alcohol and drug use. On the other hand, many lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths appear
to experience no greater level of health or mental health risks. Where problems occur, they are closely associated
with experiences of bias and discrimination in their environments. Support from important people in the teen’s life
can provide a very helpful counterpart to bias and discrimination.

3.1. Sexual Health and Sexuality Transmitted Diseases / Infections

The factual information about reproduction is necessary so youth will understand how male and female
reproductive systems function and how conception and / or STD infection occur. Adolescents often have inadequate
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information about their own and/ or their partner’s body. Teens need this information so they can make informed
decisions about sexual expression and protect their health. Youth need to understand anatomy and physiology
because every adolescent needs the knowledge and understand anatomy and him/her appreciate the ways in which
his/her body functions.

Sexual intercourse
Sexual intercourse is one of the most common behaviours among humans. Sexual intercourse is a behaviour
that may produce sexual pleasure that often culminates in orgasm in females and in males. Sexual intercourse may
also result in pregnancy and/ or STDs. In programs for youth, discussion of sexual intercourse is often limited to the
bare mention of male – female (penile – veginal) intercourse. However, youth need accurate health information
about sexual intercourse – vaginal, oral, and anal.

MISCONCEPTIONS ON HAVING SEX

 All teens are having sex

 Having sex makes you matured and an
adult
 Something is wrong with an older teen (17
-19) who is not having sex.
 A girl can’t get pregnant if she’s
menstruating.
 A girl can’t get pregnant if it’s her first time
 You are a virgin as long as you don’t have
sexual intercourse – oral sex doesn’t count.
 Oral sex is not sex.

Premarital Sex
Is sexual activity practiced by people who are unmarried? It can be nay sexual relations a person has prior to
marriage. The alternative terms for premarital sex have been suggested, including non – marital sex (which overlaps
with adultery), youthful se adolescent sex, and young – adult sex.

As 2014 Pew study on global morality found that premarital sex was considered particularly unacceptable in
“predominantly Muslim nation”, such as Indonesia, Jordan, Pakistan and Egypt, each having over 90% disapproval,
while people in Western European countries were the most accepting, with Spain, Germany and France expressing
less than 10% disapproval.

People who have premarital sex are recommended by health professionals to take precautions to protect
themselves against sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as HIV / AIDS. There is also a risk of an unplanned
pregnancy in heterosexual relationships.

FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE HAVING

PREMARITAL SEX

 Having poorly educated parents

 Unsupportive family relationships
 Lack of Parental supervision
 Friends who are sexually active
 Poor school grades/poor academic
performance
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 Poor spiritual exercises ( not hearing mass,
Lecture Notes for GEC 101 Understanding the Self
lack of church involvement)
Prepared by: Karen S. Cruz
 Engaged in risky leisure activities
Sexually Transmitted Diseases / Infections
These are also known as Venereal Diseases (VD). They are passed through sexual contact or genital –
through vaginal intercourse, oral sex and anal sex. The term STI evolved from “venereal disease” to “sexually
transmitted disease”, then “sexually transmitted infection” which has a broader range of meaning: that it can be
passed without disease. (You don’t have to be ill to infect others).

Example of STIs:
Chlamydia genital warts
Chancroid gonorrhoea
Crabs (pubic Lice) scabies
Hepatitis B syphilis
Molluscum contagiosum
Trichomoniasis (Trich)
Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
Trichmoniasis (parasitic infection)
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)
HIV/AIDS
Genital herpes

HIV/AIDS
HIV is “Human Immunodeficiency Virus”. This is retrovirus – genetic info @ RNA than DNA. HIV is the virus
that causes AIDS and it is preventable and manageable but not curable. AIDS is “Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome “. Since this is a syndrome, there are several manifestations of the breakdown in body’s immune system
and have developed in people who have been infected by HIV.

How do people get AIDS? AIDS is developed through:

1. Bodily fluids (blood products – transfusions, semen, and vaginal fluids)
2. Intravenous (IV) Drug Abuse (sharing needles and use of unsterilized blades)
3. Sexual intercourse (unprotected vaginal, oral and anal sex)
 The Philippines has registered the fastest-growing HIV/AIDS epidemic in the Asia-Pacific in the past six years
with a 140-percent increase in the number of new infections, the health ministry and the United Nations said
on Tuesday.

 At the end of 2016, there were 10,500 Filipinos infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) up
from 4,300 in 2010, Health Minister Paulyn Ubial told a news conference, citing data from UNAIDS.

 Ubial encouraged voluntary HIV-testing and use of condoms to help fight the problem, which in May 2017
alone saw 1,098 new cases of HIV infections in the Philippines, the highest recorded number of cases since
1984 when infections were first reported.

3.2. Teenage Pregnancy

This is pregnancy in human females under the age of 20 at the time that the pregnancy ends. Pregnant
teenagers face many of the same obstetrics issues as other women. There are, however, additional medical
concerns for mothers aged below 15 years old. For mothers aged 15-19, risks are associated more with socio –
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 economic factors than with the biological effects of age. In teenage with the biological effects of age. In teenage
pregnancy, there are risks of low birth weight, premature labor, anemia, and pre – eclampsia is connected to the
biological age itself, as it was observed in ten births. Every day in developing countries, 20,000 under age 18 give
birth.

This amounts to 7.3 million birth a year. And if all pregnancies are included, the number of adolescent
pregnancies is much bigger.

THINK ABOUT THESE:

 Having Sex isn’t always a healthy

choice. Impulsive decisions can lead
to lifelong problems: serious
disease and infertility.
 Abstinence is an OPTION. Choosing
not to engage in sexual contact with
another person can be a very
powerful personal choice.

Prevention of Teenage Pregnancy

Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control appear to reduce unplanned teenage pregnancy. It
is unclear if a single intervention is most effective. In the United States free access to a long acting form of
reversible birth control along with education decreased the rates of teen pregnancies by around 80% and the
rate of abortions by more than 75%.

Education
The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries.
The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects
of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health – care system guarantees
confidentiality and non – judgmental approach.

3.3 Family Planning / Responsible Parenthood

In Philippine education, the concept of Family Planning is a mandatory topic in the curriculum. Family
Planning, also called Responsible Parenthood, is as old as humankind. It is simple ways of regulating and spacing
the births of children. It is giving birth according to the health and economic conditions of the family, giving birth
of the mother according to her right age. Conception is not left to chance. Benefits derived from Family Planning
are identified as follows:
1. For the Family – to promote healthy, happy family
2. For the mother – she can recover her health and strength after delivery.
3. For the child - a better chance of growing healthier and well cared.

Family Planning Methods / Methods of Contraception

Youth also need to know that traditional methods of preventing pregnancy (that may be common in that
particular community and / or culture) may be ineffective preventing pregnancy and may, depending on the method,
even increase susceptibility to STDs. It should be determined what those traditional methods are, their effectiveness,
and their side effects and know traditional methods of contraception in culturally appropriate and informative way.
A concept linked to family planning is contraception, also known as birth control and fertility control. This is
the method or device used to prevent pregnancy. It is also defined as a deliberate prevention of conception or
impregnation. Family planning methods and / or contraception methods are presented as follows:

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Lecture Notes for GEC 101 Understanding the Self
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 1. Natural Birth Control employs natural control methods that people do not help prevent an unintended
pregnancy are without the use of modern / artificial ways of contraception. These require commitment
when you make the decision, discipline and self – control for it to be effective. These include abstinence,
fertility awareness methods, the rhythm, calendar or standard day’s method, outer course and
continued breastfeeding, all requiring discipline and responsibility which the Catholic Church approves.
2. Artificial Birth Control employs artificial control methods to help prevent unintended pregnancy use
modern / contemporary measures such as contraceptive or birth control pills, diaphragm, male and
female condoms, spermicide, cervical cap, today sponge, birth control patch, birth control shot, birth
control implant, intrauterine device (IUD), tubal ligation / vasectomy, tubal implants and emergency
contraception pill.

Lesson 7: The Material / Economic Self

We are living in a world of sale and shopping spree. We are given a wide array of products to purchase from a simple
set of spoon and fork to owning a restaurant. Almost everywhere, including the digital space, we can find
promotions of product purchase. Product advertisements are suggestive of making us feel better or look good. Part
of us wants to have that product. What makes us want to have those products are connected with who we are.
What we want to have and already possess is related to our self.

Belk stated that ‘we regard our possessions as parts of our selves. We are what we have and what we
possess.” There is a direct link between self-identity with what we have and possess. Our wanting to have and
possess has a connection with another aspect of the self, the material self.

The Material Self

People had a “material self,” in the words of William James, the Harvard psychologist and giant of the
American intellectual scene in the late nineteenth century. A “man’s self is the sum total of all that he can call his,”
James wrote in 1890. This included his body, family and reputation but also his “clothes and his house… his lands and
horses, and yacht and bank-account.” If they grew, their owners felt triumphant. If they faded, people felt a part of
themselves was dying.

Possessions and the Extended Self

The premise that people regard their possessions as parts of themselves is not new. If possessions are
viewed as part of self, it follows that an unintentional loss of possessions should be regarded as a loss or lessening of
self. Goffman provides a thorough review of the evidence of deliberate lessening of self-manifested in such
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institutions as mental hospitals, homes for the aged, prisons concentration camps, military training camps, boarding
schools, and monasteries.
One of the first steps in receiving new members into these institutions is so systematically deprive them of
all personal possessions including clothing, money, and even names. Their bodies may be standardized to some
degree, as with military haircuts, and their behaviours and conversations may be severely restricted. They are
reissued standard wardrobes and minimal possessions to aid in rebuilding a new standardized identity. The result of
this systematic substitution of standardized “identity kits” for former possessions is an elimination of uniqueness,
and a corresponding and often traumatic lessening of the individual’s sense of self. Although the new, more
standardized possessions that are substituted my eventually restore some sense of self, the new self should
necessarily be less unique and involve more of a shared group identity.

Another instance in which nonvoluntary loss of possessions may bring about a diminished sense of self is
when possessions are lost due to theft or casualty. In the case of burglary victims, Rosenblatt, Walsh, and Jackson
suggest that a process of grief and mourning may follow the discovery of theft, just as one might grieve and mourn
the death of self.

From discussions, we can say; the material self refers to all the physical elements that reflect who a person is
which includes his/her body, possessions and home. The body is the innermost part of the material self. The family,
home and clothes also form a person’s material self. Furthermore, practical interests of a person is part of his/her
material self which includes the instinctive impulse of collecting property. Luxury and materialism are by-products of
the material self. Materialism refers to the theory or belief that nothing exists except matter, its movements and its
modifications; the theory or belief that consciousness and will are wholly due to material agency; a tendency to
consider material possessions and physical comfort as more important than spiritual values.

The Self in a Material World

People are likely to purchase products that can relate to their personality. Material possessions signify some
aspects of some aspects of one’s sense of self and identity, for example, most millennial have laptops and cell
phones and are a familiar with different technological innovations because of their inclination to be immersed in the
digital which follows the idea why they are known as digital natives. They use these gadgets to communicate, study
and to a certain extent, maintain a particular social status. Parents buy necessities for their family because it is
symbolic of their need to provide “security”. The clothes people wear manifest their personal style and comfort.
Possessions, tell a lot about their owners. Things are brought because of personal association. Thus, one’s sense of
self and identity is influential on how an individual chooses to purchase his or her wants and how he or she makes
economic decisions that will address his or her personal and social needs.

The decisions that go into the purchase of items and certain services is dependent on a number of factors,
including financial constraints, availability of items and services, and the influence of family and friends. However,
the most important factor is determining whether these items and services fall under “wants” or “needs”. Some
people may confuse needs with wants, but there is a clear distinction. Needs are those important for survival. Food,
clothing, and shelter are basic needs so people purchase them out of necessity. Wants, however, are synonymous
with luxuries. People buy them for reasons that do not warrant necessity. Buying cell phones and other gadgets for
communication can be perceived as a necessity but purchasing units into high-end line can be a way of projecting a
particular social status or taste. People sometimes purchase items to build how they want to be perceived by others.
Clothes may be a necessity, but people who have the capacity to choose brands and styles to project their identity
for other people to see. Regardless of whether the things that people have are needs or wants, material possessions
tell something of the personality and social values of those who own them. Possessions extended version of oneself.

The possessions of material things also indicates one’s status in the society. People can tell whether the
owner is part of wealthy family or in the middle class. One’s possession are perceived as personal choices that define
people to a certain extent. These personal choices build one’s material and economics self which is an extension of
his or her social identity.

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Lecture Notes for GEC 101 Understanding the Self
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Lesson 8: The Spiritual Self

Spiritual self is one of the four constituents of the “self” according to William James in his book, The Principles of
Psychology in 1980. The spiritual self is the most intimate, inner subjective part of self. It is the most intimate version
of the self because of the satisfaction experienced when thinking of one’s ability to argue and discriminate, of one’s
moral sensibility and conscience, and of our unconquerable will (James 1890) is purer than all other sentiments of
satisfaction. (Green 1997)

The ability to use moral sensibility and conscience may be seen through the expressions of religion, its
beliefs and practices. In the same manner, cultural rituals and ceremonies are some manifestations what people
believe in. Moreover, seeking the meaning of life is a journey that the spiritual self is on.

Religion
Rebecca Stein works on the definition of religion “as a set of cultural beliefs and practices that usually
includes some or all of basic characteristics. These characteristics are:
1. A belief in anthropomorphic supernatural being, such as spirit and gods
2. A focus on the sacred supernatural, where sacred refers to a feeling of reverence and awe
3. The presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural beings as well as physical
beings and objects
4. The performance of ritual activities that involves the manipulation of sacred object to communicate to
supernatural beings and/or to influence or control events
5. The articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and other means
6. Provide the creation and the maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social control within a
community; provide explanation for unknown and a sense of control for individuals.
An individual live in a society where there are many practices of religion. The choice of religious belief lies within the
spiritual self. Although the choice maybe influenced by the society and its culture.

Ritual
Ritual is the performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by a tradition or sacred law. Ritual is a specific,
observable mode of behaviour exhibited by all known societies. It is thus possible to view ritual as a way of defining
or describing humans.

There are three fundamental characteristics of rituals according to Penner. Ritual has the characteristics of:
1. A feeling or emotion of respect, awe, fascination, or dread in relation to the sacred;
2. Dependence upon a belief system that is usually expressed in the language of myth;
3. Is symbolic in relation to its reference.

The self can be described as a ritual being who exhibits a striking parallel between their ritual and verbal
behaviour. Just as language is a system of symbolic acts that is based upon arbitrary rules, ritual may be viewed as a
system of symbolic acts that is upon arbitrary rules. Participation to rituals is expressions of religious beliefs.

The Concept of Spirituality

As mentioned in the earlier chapter, the spiritual self is who we are at our score. It is more permanent than
the other two selves, material self and social self. The spiritual self is our subjective and most intimate self. It is the
aspect of self which develops a certain level of spirituality which is deemed as man’s ways of seeking as well as
expressing the meaning and purpose of his life. It speaks of the quality of one’s relationships—with God, self, and
others, institutions and God’s entire creation, marked by respect, forgiveness, generous service and prayer. It is
showing great refinement or high level of Christian maturity and concern with the higher things in life such as the
Sacred or the Divine. This spirituality is specified more concretely in deepening the faith. Spirituality leads man to a
deeper communion with the Divine. It is a path of direct and personal connection with the Divine. It embrace all
faiths, social and political ideologies. It aids persons in spiritual, emotional or physical distress, crisis or discomfort as
well as those seeking to make a significant change in their lives through self-awareness. This can be a healing process
that leads to personal development.

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The Spirit and the Soul
The interconnection of two important terms in our discussion needs to be considered, which that of the
spirit and the soul is. Though these are sometimes used interchangeably, they have distinctions which need to be
recognized. As mentioned by L. Mercado, “the spirit in the Hebrew language is ruach or pneuma in Greek which
means breath (esp. the breath of life). The spirit is described as the disposition of an individual, a person’s habitual
attitudes, as man’s supernatural power which comes from God. It is the part of us through which all life and power
of God flow. It is the “life-giving part of man”. Soul on the other hand, is in Hebrew, nephesh or in Greek, psyche,
originally meaning ‘throat’ or ‘neck’, which means ‘human life’, the animating principle of human nature. In modern
psychology, it is described as the ‘will, mind, the seat of emotion, conscience’. Both soul and spirit mean life. But soul
(nephesh-psyche) stands for natural man, while spirit (ruach-pneuma) is the ethical factor which adds the new
dimension of relationship with God. Spirit enables man to serve God and to participate in the supernatural order.
Here, the Hebrew concept of man is holistic, not a trichotomy of body (flesh), soul, and spirit, but one totality.
However, the Hebrew sees the distinction between the natural and the supernatural, in respect to the soul and
spirit.” The term used by the Filipinos for spirit is a loan word, “espirito” or “espiritu’’, which is in Visayan term,
“ginhawa”, in Tagalog, “hininga” and in Ilocano, “anges”.

The concept of soul is very familiar to the Filipinos. As mentioned earlier, this is the “nonphysical aspect of
the person, the complexity of human attributes that manifests as consciousness, thought, feeling, and will, regarded
as distinct from the physical body. It is the person’s emotional and moral nature, where the most private thoughts
and feelings are hidden. In some systems of religious belief, the soul is the spiritual part of a human being that is
believed to continue to exist after the body dies. The soul is also regarded as subject to future reward and
punishment. The Bible further speaks of the soul as the innermost aspect of the person which signifies the spiritual
principle in him, “the breath of life”. It is because of this spiritual soul that the body becomes alive.

The Practice of Religion

Researches speak of religion as the people’s way of connecting themselves to God as they search for
meaning in life. Religion is also popularly understood as “beliefs and behaviours related to supernatural beings and
powers.” Still others define religion as “an organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere, along with
ceremonial practices; our way of relating with the supernatural or the DIVINE”. All cultures have religion.

Religion serves several functions to man as follows:

1. “The practice of religion has a significant effect on happiness and an overall sense of personal well-being.”
2. “Regular religious attendance led to much less psychological distress.”
3. “Young people see love as the central aspect of the meaning of life; they believe that religion is still
important in helping form judgments and attitudes.
4. The cohabitation rate is seven compared to persons who frequently attend.

“Therefore, the practice of religion is beneficial to individuals, families, states, and the nation. It improves
health, learning, economic well-being, self-control, self-esteem, and empathy. It reduces the incidence of social
pathologies, such as out-of-wedlock births, crime, delinquency, drug and alcohol addiction, health problems,
anxieties, and prejudices. Furthermore, religion creates a moral community to which people experience a sense of
belonging. It provides rites of passage as in the case of sacraments in Christianity. It provides emotional support. It
serves as a means to provide answers to ultimate questions in life. It shapes the people’s views of the universe.
Finally, it can be a powerful agent of social change”.

Some World Religious Beliefs and Practices

 There are different religions with different beliefs and practices.

 Some of the major world religions are Buddhism,
Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism.
 Excerpt of some religious beliefs and practices are found in the University of London’s Religion and Beliefs
Guide 2017.

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 Buddhism is a faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama
(“the Buddha”) more than 2,500 years ago in India. With about
470 million followers, scholars consider Buddhism one of the
major world religions. Its practice has historically been most
prominent in East and Southeast Asia, but its influence is growing
in the West. Many Buddhist ideas and philosophies overlap with
those of other faiths.

Buddhism Beliefs

Some key Buddhism beliefs include:

 The religion’s founder, Buddha, is considered an
extraordinary man, but not a god. The word Buddha means
“enlightened.”

 The path to enlightenment is attained by utilizing

morality, meditation and wisdom. Buddhists often meditate
because they believe it helps awaken truth.

 Buddhism believes that life is not a bed of roses instead

there are suffering, pain and frustrations.

 When people suffer, they want to experience the goodness of life and avoid disappointments.

 It becomes a habit known as the reactive cycle of wanting and hating, like and dislike and craving and
aversion.

 This reactive cycle can be broken through the practice of meditation, acquiring more wisdom and deeper
understanding and acceptance of things as they are.

Followers of Buddhism can worship in temples or in their own homes.

Buddhist monks, or bhikkhus, follow a strict code of conduct, which includes celibacy.

There is no single Buddhist symbol, but a number of images have evolved that represent Buddhist beliefs, including
the lotus flower, the eight-spoked dharma wheel, the Bodhi tree and the swastika (an ancient symbol whose name
means "well-being" or "good fortune" in Sanskrit).

Some forms of Buddhism incorporate ideas of other religions and philosophies, such as Taoism and Bon.

CUSTOMS and PRACTICES

 There are two types of meditation practices:
a. Samatha - is practiced as mindfulness of breathing and development of loving kindness (Metta Bhavana).
b. Vipassana – practices aim at developing insight into reality.
 Acquiring wisdom is by studying Buddha’s teaching, the Dharma. Through the reflection of Dharma,
Buddhist can achieve a deeper understanding of life.
 Buddhists believe in non-violence principle.
 Some of the major Buddhist celebration are Parinirvana Day in February; Buddha Day (Wesak) in
May; Dharma Day in Kuly; Padmasambhava Day in October; and Sangha Day in November.

Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based

on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Its
adherents, known as Christians, believe that Jesus is the

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Christ, whose coming as the messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, called the Old Testament in Christianity,
and chronicled in the New Testament.

Followers of the Christian religion base their beliefs on the life, teachings and death of Jesus Christ. Christians believe
in one God that created heaven, earth and the universe. The belief in one God originated with the Jewish religion.

BELIEFS
 Christians in Trinitarian God. One God in three personas:
a. God the Father (Creator)
b. God the Son (Savior) and
c. God the Holy Spirit (Sustainer)
 Eternal life after death will be achieved through faith in Jesus Christ.
 Jesus Christ is, God the Son, who came into flesh, to spread the Good News of Salvation.
 He died on the Cross for the sin of the humanity but resurrected from the death, so that anyone who
believes in Him will be saved and have eternal life.
 The Holy Bible is a selection of books, which is divided into two, the Old Testament and New Testament.

CUSTOMS and PRACTICES

 Sacrament of Baptism and Sacrament of Communion are practiced by Christian churches.
 The Sacrament of Baptism symbolizers the birth in Christian World, while the Sacrament of Communion is
act of remembrance of Jesus Christ’s sacrificial love.
 Jesus Christ teaching in unconditional love that is expressed in loving the poor, oppressed, and outcast of the
society.
 Christmas and Resurrection (Easter) are the two major celebrations in Christianity.
 Christmas; usually on December 25, commemorates the birth of Jesus Christ while Resurrection Sunday
(depends on the lunar calendar, sometime in March or April) celebrates the resurrection of Jesus Christ from
Death.

Hinduism is an Indian religion and

dharma, or way of life. It is the world's
third-largest religion with over 1.25
billion followers, or 15–16% of the
global population, known as Hindus.

Followers believe there are multiple

paths to reaching their god. Hindus
believe in the doctrines of samsara (the
continuous cycle of life, death, and
reincarnation) and karma (the universal
law of cause and effect). One of the key
thoughts of Hinduism is “atman,” or the
belief in soul.

Hinduism is more than a religion. ... It is

a culture, a way of life, and a code of
behavior. This is reflected in a term Indians use to describe the Hindu religion: Sanatana Dharma, which means
eternal faith, or the eternal way things are (truth).

Hinduism does not require a vegetarian diet, but some Hindus avoid eating meat because it minimizes hurting other
life forms. Vegetarianism is considered satvic, that is purifying the body and mind lifestyle in some Hindu texts.

BELIEFS
 Hinduism covers a wide range of traditional beliefs and religious groups;
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Lecture Notes for GEC 101 Understanding the Self
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  Thus, there is no single founder or leader.
 Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death and rebirth, governed by Karma.
 Karma is a concept where the reincarnated life will depend on how the past life was spent.
 Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives its next incarnation is always
dependent on how the previous life was lived.
 Vedas are sacred scriptures of Hindus.
 Mahabharata and Ramayana are two other important texts of the Hindus.

CUSTOMS and PRACTICES

 Diwali, and Navrati are the most celebrated festivals of the Hindus.
 Diwali is the festival of Lights while Navrati is the festival of nine nights, which celebrate the triumph of good
over evil.
 Hindus have set dates to honor particular manifestations of God.

Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion that teaches

that Muhammad is a messenger of God. It is the world's
second-largest religion with over 1.8 billion.

Islam is partially based on the Judeo-Christian religions.

It has a monotheistic (belief in one God) message, and
follows some of the same principles as Christianity and
Judaism. The followers of Islam, Muslims, believe in one
God, Allah, and believe Muhammad was his prophet.

Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and

unique, and has guided mankind through prophets,
revealed scriptures, and natural signs.

Muslims have six main beliefs.

 Belief in Allah as the one and only God.
 Belief in angels.
 Belief in the holy books.
 Belief in the Prophets... e.g. Adam, Ibrahim (Abraham), Musa (Moses), Dawud (David), Isa (Jesus). ...
 Belief in the Day of Judgement... ...
 Belief in Predestination...

OTHER BELIEFS:
 Muslims believe in Allah, who is their “one God”.
 They believe in the unity and universality of God.
 Muslims also have a strong sense of community or “ummahy” and an awareness of their solidarity with all
Muslims worldwide.
 Islams meaning “willing submission to God”.
 Muslims believe that Mohammed is the last and final prophet sent by God.
 Mohammed was born in Mecca in 570 CE and received revelations from God through the Angel Gabriel over
a period of 23 years.
 The Holy Book of Islam is called the Quran, which was taught to be recited in Arabic because any translation
is seen as inadequate.

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Lecture Notes for GEC 101 Understanding the Self
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According to the Islamic statement of witness, or shahada, “There is no god but Allah”. Muslims believe he created
the world in six days and sent prophets such as Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus, and lastly Muhammad, who
called people to worship only him, rejecting idolatry and polytheism.

CUSTOMS and PRACTICES:

Muslims believe in the five pillars of Islam, which are the found of Muslim life:
1. Shahadah – statement of faith: “there is no God but the one true God and Mohammed is his messenger”.
2. Salat – the prayer that is practiced five times a day.
3. Zakat – the monetary offering for the benefit of the poor. It compromises the 2.5% of a Muslim’s assets.
4. Hajj – the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims who can afford are askede to do the pilgrimage at least once
in their lifetime.
5. Sawm – the fasting. Muslims do fasting, from food, drink, and sexual act, during the celebration of Ramadan.
Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar. The fast is from dawn to sunset.
 The two major festivals in Islam are Eidul- Fitr and Eisul- Adh.
 Eidul Fitr is the celebration at the end of Ramadan, while Eidul Adha is celebrated within the
completion of the pilgrimage, the Hajj.

Judaism is an ethnic religion comprising the

collective religious, cultural and legal tradition
and civilization of the Jewish people. Judaism
is considered by religious Jews to be the
expression of the covenant that God
established with the Children of Israel.

Judaism is the world’s oldest

monotheistic religion, dating back nearly
4,000 years. Followers of Judaism
believe in one God who revealed himself
through ancient prophets. The history of
Judaism is essential to understanding
the Jewish faith, which has a rich
heritage of law, culture and tradition.
Judaism Beliefs

Jewish people believe there’s only one God

who has established a covenant—or special
agreement—with them. Their God
communicates to believers through prophets
and rewards good deeds while also punishing
evil.

Most Jews (with the exception of a few groups) believe that their Messiah hasn’t yet come—but will one day.

Jewish people worship in holy places known as synagogues, and their spiritual leaders are called rabbis. The six-
pointed Star of David is the symbol of Judaism.

Today, there are about 14 million Jews worldwide. Most of them live in the United States and Israel. Traditionally, a
person is considered Jewish if his or her mother is Jewish.

OTHER BELIEFS:
 The Jews believe in God of Abraham, the same God that liberated the Hebrew slaves from Egypt to Canaan,
the Promised Land through the leadership of Moses and later, Joshua.
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  The Jews believe in the coming of Messiah, the savior.
 The sacred scripture of the Jews is called the Torah or the Law.
 The Torah is the guide of the Jewish living.
 The study and interpretation of Torah is part of the Jewish culture.

CUSTOMS and PRACTICES:

There are five major Festivals observed by the Jews:
1. Rosh Hashnah – the New Year
2. Yom Kippur – the Day of Atonement
3. Pesach – Passover
4. Shavout – Pentecost
5. Sukkot – Tabernacles. The Jewish Sabbath begins on Friday evening at sunset and is an important time when
families gather for the Shabbat meal.
 Religious beliefs, rituals, practices, and customs are all part of the expression of the spiritual self.
 What to believe and how to manifest the belief is entirely dependent on the individual, to the self.
 A person might believe that there is higher being, a supernatural being, usually termed as God, but
not necessarily wants to be affiliated or identified with a certain religious group. Others may have
groups.
 Religious beliefs and practices, therefore, are formed relative to its context and culture.

Finding and Creating Meaning

According to Viktor Frankl, “meaning is something to discover rather than to invent.” It has the same
concept with inner happiness, life satisfaction, self-actualization, deep spirituality. He believes that in life, there is an
existential vacuum which means that life is empty, meaningless, purposeless, aimless, and adrift and so on. Because
of this existential vacuum, we fill our lives with pleasure, eating beyond all necessity, or even having promiscuous
sex.

Victor Emil Frankl was born in Vienna, Austria on

March 26, 1905. He is a medical doctor, psychiatrist
who developed Logotheraphy, a form of
psuchotheraphy, based on helping clients find a sense
of meaning and purpose in their lives.

Source: https://wordandway.org/2020/04/06/the-
search-for-meaning-in-terrible-times/

We might seek power, especially the power

represented by monetary success. Because of this
existential vacuum, Frankl says that we fill our lives
with “busy-ness,” conformity, conventionality, anger, hatred and even attempts to destroy what we think is hurting
us, a neurotic “vicious cycle,” such as obsession with germs and cleanliness, or fear-driven obsession with a phobic
object.

Frankl’s Sources of Meaning

Popova (2017) discussed Victor Frankl’s worl. There are three possible sources of the meaning of life:
1. Purposeful Work
2. Courage in the face of difficulty
3. Love

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Lecture Notes for GEC 101 Understanding the Self
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