Photo credit : ISTOCK/DANE_MARK (n.d.

Chapter 1:

Defining the Self: Personal and

Developmental Perspectives on Self and
Identity

Lesson 1: Philosophical Perspective

Lesson 2: Sociological Perspective
Lesson 3: Psychological Perspective

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Lesson 4: Western and Eastern Concept of
the Self

Lesson 1:
Philosophical Perspectives
Lesson Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain the role of philosophy in understanding the self;
2. discuss the different concepts of the self from the philosophical perspective; 3.
differentiate the various concepts of the self and identity their similarities; and
4. develop your own philosophy of the self.

PHILOSOPHY AND THE SELF

Philosophy is about finding answers to serious questions about ourselves and about the
world we live in. What is morally right and wrong? What is a good life? Does God exist? What is
the mind? What is art? Is the world really as it appears to us? What can we know? These
questions are some of the questions asked in philosophy. Basically, philosophy is about
Questioning existing knowledge and intuitions to get closer to the truth.
With philosophy, you will be able to acquire skills that are useful in our daily lives. These
include critical thinking, argument skills, communication, reasoning, analysis, and problem solving.
The skills acquired will allow you to justify your opinions, spot a bad argument, no matter what
the topic, and explain to people why they are wrong and you are right. Philosophy basically teaches
you to think!
The world Philosophy comes from the Greek words PHILO (meaning Love) and SOPHIA
(meaning Wisdom). Literally, Philosophy means Love of Wisdom or the inquiry into the nature of
reality. It was Pythagoras who first used the term philosophy.
The philosophical framework for understanding the self was first introduced by Ancient
Greek philosophers; Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. It was Socrates who suggested to “know
thyself” which asks the question “what is self and the qualities that define it?” Philosophers agree
that self-knowledge is a prerequisite to a happy and meaningful life.

1. SOCRATES: An unexamined life is not worth living

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 • Socrates was the first thinker to focus on the full power
of reason on the human self: who we are, who we
should be, and who we will become.
• Every man is dualistic; composed of body and soul
• Two important aspects of his personhood
– Body – imperfect and impermanent
– Soul – perfect and permanent
• In Socrates’ concept of reality, it consists of two dichotomous
realms:
a. The Physical realm
– changeable, transient and imperfect – The body
Photo credit : Red Zambala (n.d.)
belongs to this realm.
b. The Ideal realm
– unchanging, eternal, and immortal –
The soul belongs to this realm.
• The soul strives for wisdom and perfection, and reason is the soul’s tool to achieve an
exalted state of life.
• Our preoccupation with bodily needs such as food, drink, sex, pleasure, material
possessions, and wealth keep us from attaining wisdom.
• A person can have a meaningful and happy life only if he becomes virtuous and knows
the value of himself that can be achieved through constant soul-searching.
• For him, this is best achieved when one tries to separate the body from the soul as much
possible.

2. PLATO: The Soul is Immortal

• A student of Socrates
• Philosophy of the self can be explained as a process of
self-knowledge and purification of the soul.
• He believed that in the existence of the mind and soul •
Mind and soul is given in perfection with God •
Soul has three parts:
a. Rational Soul
reason and intellect
divine essence that enables us to think
deeply, make wise choices, and achieve a
true understanding of eternal truths. Photo credit : The University of Adelaide (2014 )

b. Spirited Soul
emotion and passion
basic emotions such as love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness, and
empathy.
c. Appetitive Soul
basic needs
includes our basic biological needs such as hunger, thirst, and sexual
desire.

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 • These three elements of our selves are in a dynamic
relationship with one another, sometimes in conflict.
• When conflict occurs, Plato believes that it is the
responsibility of our Reason to sort things out and exert
control, restoring a harmonious relationship among the three elements of our selves.
• Plato believes that genuine happiness can only be achieved by people who consistently
make sure that their Reason is in control of their Spirits and Appetites.

3. ARISTOTLE: The Soul is the Essence of the Self

• The body and soul are not two separate elements but are one thing.
• The soul is simply the Form of the body, and is not capable of existing without the body.
• The soul is that which makes a person a person. The soul is the essence of the self.
• Aristotle suggests that the rational nature of the self is to lead a good, flourishing, and
fulfilling life.
• Without the body the soul cannot exist. The soul dies along with the body.
• Aristotle suggested that anything with life has soul.
• His discussion about the self centers on the kinds of soul
possessed by a man.
• He introduced the three kinds of soul.
a. Vegetative
– includes the physical body that can grow.
b. Sentient
– includes the sensual desires, feelings, and emotions.
c. Rational
– is what makes man human. It includes the intellect that makes man know and
understand things.
4. ST. AUGUSTINE: I am Doubting, Therefore I am • Integrated the
ideas of Plato and Christianity.
• Augustine’s view of the human person reflects the entire spirit
of the medieval world
• The soul is united with the body so that man may be entire
and complete.
• Augustine described that humankind is created in the image
and likeness of God.
• Therefore, the human person being a creation of God is always
geared towards the good.
• The self is known only through knowing God.
• Self-knowledge is a consequence of knowledge of God.
• For Augustine, “knowledge can only come by seeing the truth
that dwells within us.
• The truth of which Augustine spoke refers to the truth of
knowing God. Photo credit : WikiCommons (n.d.)

• St. Augustine believed that the human person being a creation of God is always geared
towards the good.

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 • The self is known only through knowing God.
• Self-knowledge is a consequence of knowledge of God.
• For Augustine, “knowledge can only come by seeing the
truth that dwells within us.” • The truth of which
Augustine spoke refers to the truth of knowing God.

5. RENE DESCARTES: I Think Therefore I am

• The act of thinking about self – of being self-conscious – is in itself proof that there is self.
• The self is combination of two distinct entities
a. Cogito – the thing that think – mind
b. Extenza – extension the body – body
• Cogito ergo sum – “I think therefore, I am”

6. JOHN LOCKE: The Self is Consciousness

• The human mind at birth is tabula rasa or blank slate
• He felt that the self is constructed primarily from sense experiences
• Consciousness
a. necessary to have a coherent personal identity or knowledge of the self as a
person.
b. what makes possible our belief that we are the same identity in different
situations.

7. DAVID HUME: There is no Self

• Self is simply a bundle or collection of different perceptions,
which succeed each other with an inconceivable rapidly and are
in a perpetual flux and movement
• The idea of personal identity is a result of imagination
• There is no self

8. IMMANUEL KANT: We Construct the Self

• Self is not just what gives one his personality but also the seat of knowledge acquisition
for all human persons
• The self constructs its own reality creating a world that is familiar and predictable
• Through our rationality, the self transcends sense experience

9. GILBERT RYLE: The Self is the Way People Behave

• Self is not an entity one can locate and analyze but simply the convenient name that
people use to refer to all the behaviors that people make
• “I act therefore I am”, in short, the self is the same as bodily behavior
• The self is the way people behave

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10. PAUL CHURCHLAND: The Self is the Brain
• The self is inseparable from the brain and the physiology
of the body
• All we have is the brain and so, if the brain is gone, there is
no self
• The physical brain and not the imaginary mind, gives us our
sense of self
• The mind does not really exist
• It is the brain and not the imaginary mind that gives us our
sense of self
• The self is the brain Photo credit : Goodreads, Inc (2019)

11. MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY: The Self is Embodied Subjectivity

• The mind-body bifurcation that has been going on for a long time is a futile endeavor and
an invalid problem
• All knowledge of our selves and our world is based on subjective experience
• The self can never be truly objectified or known in a completely objective sort of way
• The self is embodied subjectivity

Lesson 2:
Sociological Perspective
Lesson Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Explain the relationship between and among the self, society, and culture;
2. Describe and discuss the different ways by which society and culture shape the self;
3. Compare and contrast how the self can be influenced by the different institutions in the
society; and
4. Examine one’s self against the different views of self that were discussed in the class.

SOCIOLOGY AND THE SELF

The self, in contemporary literature and even in common sense, is commonly defined by the
following characteristics: “separate, self-contained, independent, consistent, unitary, and private”
(Stevens, 1996). By separate, it meant that the self is distinct from the other selves. The self is
always unique and has its own identity. One cannot be another person. Even twins are distinct
from each other. Self is unitary in that it is the center of all experiences and thoughts that run
through a person. The last characteristic of the self being private suggests that the self is isolated
from the external world. It lives in within its own world. However, we also see that this potential

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clash between the self and the external reality is the reason for
the self to have a clear understanding of what it might be, what
it can be, and what it will be.
Various sociologists have varying beliefs on how the self is
formed. The similarity among their perspectives is that the environment and the people around
us play an important role on how we perceive ourselves.

1. MEAD: The Social Self

Mead believed that the self was created through social
interaction and that this process started in childhood, with
children beginning to develop a sense of self at about the
same time that they began to learn language. He believed that
“the self is born of society. The self is inseparable from society
and bound up with communication. It builds on social
experience. This is largely a matter of taking the role of other
with increasing sophistications, broadening out from
significant others to greater complexity”. Further, Mead
believed that the self is the human capacity to be reflective
and take the role of others and thus:
a. The self emerges from social experience. It is not part Photo credit : Britannica (n.d.)
of the body and it does not exist at birth, but it is
distinctly what makes us humans.
b. Social experience involves communication and the exchange of symbols. People
create meaning
c. To understand intention you must imagine the situation from another person’s point
of view. By taking the role of the other: the self is reflective and reflexive.
Mead proposed the five (5) stages of his theory on the development of the self namely:
a. Preperatory stage: children mimic /imitate others.
b. Play stage: children pretend to play the role of a particular or a significant other. The
particular or significant other are the perspectives and particular role that a child
learns and internalizes
c. Game stage: children play organized games and take on the perspective of the
generalized other
d. Generalized other: the perspectives and expectations of a network of others (or a
society in general) that a child learns and then takes into account when shaping
his/her own behavior
e. Dual nature of the self: the believe that we experience the self as both subject and
object, the “I” and “me”

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2. COOLEY:
The
Looking-
glass Self
Charles Cooley believed
that “One's sense of self depends
on seeing one's self reflected in
interactions with others”. He
proposes that the image
people have of themselves is based
on how they believe others perceive
them. He called this The LookingGlass Self. The looking-glass self refers to the notion that the
self develops through our perception of others' evaluation and appraisal of us.
Charles Cooley was George Mead’s colleagues.

3. GOFFMAN: Constructing Situations and Drama

According to Erving Goffman, “People
routinely behave like actors on a stage.
Photo credit : Top Hat (n.d.)
Everyday social life becomes theatrical. There
are roles, scripts and actions. Daily life is a
series of stagecraft rules.” He believed that
meaning is constructed through interaction.
He coined the term Interaction Order which
depicts what we do in the immediate presence
of others. For example, we roll our eyes when
we see our enemy or we hide when we see our
crush.
His approach, dramaturgy, focuses on how Photo credit : Wikipedia (n.d.)

individuals take on roles and act them out to

present a favorable impression to their
"audience". Goffman argues that people are
concerned with controlling how others view
them, a process he called Impression Management. Goffman identified the following
components in his theory of Impression Management; (1) Region, (2) Backstage, and (3) Front
Stage.
Lastly, Goffman believed that the self is Social construction dependent of the situation.
Each definition of a situation lends itself to a different approach, and the consequences are
real.

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Lesson 3:
Psychological Perspective
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Identify the different ideas in psychology about the “self”;

2. Create your own definition of the “self” based on the definitions from psychology; and

3. Analyze the effects of various factors identified in psychology in the formation of the “self.”
PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SELF
In confidence or in an attempt to further analytical discussions, a lot of people say, “I am
who I am”. Yet, this statement still begs the question “if you are who you are, then who are you
that makes you who you are?” As mentioned earlier, there are various definitions of the “self” and
other similar or interchangeable concepts in psychology. Simply put, “self” is the sense of personal
identity and of who we are as individuals (Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014).

1. William James’ Concept of Self

William James proposed that the self has two (2) aspects that he called the “I-self” and
the “Me-self”. The “I-Self” refers to the self that knows who he or she is. It is the thinking,
acting and feeling self (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011; Hogg and Vaughan 2010). The
“ISelf” reflects the soul of a person or what is now thought of as the mind and is called the
pure ego.
On the other hand, The “Me-Self” is the empirical self. It refers to describing the person’s
personal experiences and further divided into sub-categories: material self, social self, and
spiritual self. It is the physical characteristics as well as psychological capabilities that makes
who you are (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011; Hogg and Vaughan 2010).

2. Carl Rogers’ Self Theory

Carl Rogers proposed the Self-concept which refers to the
image of oneself. He defined the self as a flexible and changing
perception of personal identity. The self develops from
interactions with significant people and
self-awareness. According to Rogers, human beings are
always striving for selffulfilment or self-actualization. Central to
achieving selfactualization is the development of self-concept.
When the needs of the self are denied, severe anxiety may
result. Photo credit: Wikipedia (n.d.)

Carl Rogers identified two (2) components of self-concept:

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 (1) Real Self that consists of all the ideas, including the
awareness of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’ and (2) Ideal Self
which is the person’s conception of what one should be or
wanted to be that includes one’s goal and ambitions in life.

3. Lester’s Multiple versus Unified Self

Self-understanding in adolescents also includes conceptualizing the self as multiple or
unified. Lester (2010) has proposed a multiple self theory of the mind in formal terms, with
12 postulates and 49 corollaries. According to this theory, the construction of multiple selves
varies across different roles and relationships. Coping with different selves constitutes a
formidable task among adolescents. These challenges contribute heavily to the young person’s
struggle for a unified self.

4. Winnicott’s True versus False Self

Donald Winnicott, an English paediatrician and
psychoanalysts, suggests that the self is composed of
the true self and false self. The function of the false self
is to hide and protect the true self. People tend to
display a false self to impress others. For example, there
are times in our lives where we pretend to be happy
when we have a problem. We do it for various reasons;
sometimes to protect ourselves and sometimes to
protect the ones we love. Winicott therefore conclude
that the self can change depending on situations.
Photo credit: The Winnicott’s Trust (n.d.)

5. Freud: The Importance of the Unconscious

Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist, was
the founder of psychoanalysis. In founding
psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic
techniques such as the use of the free
association and discovered transference. Freud’s
redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile
forms led him to formulate the Oedepus Rex as
the central tenet of psychoanalytic. Furthermore,
Freud proposed that psychological development
takes place during five (5) psychosexual stages:
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. These are
called psychosexual stages because
each stage represents the
fixation of libido (roughly translated as
Photo credit: Biography (2017 )
sexual desires or instincts) on a different are of
the body.
It was also Freud who developed a model of psychic structure that has three components
namely:

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 a. Id – pleasure-seeking, immature, impulsive,
child-like and cannot delay gratification.

b. Ego – “I”, works on the reality principle, controls

the id and can delay pleasure.

c. Superego – the “conscience” and ‘moral judge” of conduct

Sigmund Freud noted a number of ego defences which he refers to throughout his
written works. His daughter, Anna developed these ideas and elaborated on them. Many
psychoanalysts have also added further types of ego defences.

Photo credit: Joshua Seong of Verywell (2019)

Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect
a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings. These Psychological
Defense Mechanisms are used to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety and guilt, which
arise because we feel threatened, or because our id or ego becomes too demanding. Defense
mechanisms operate at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant feelings or make
good things feel better for the individual. Ten (10) most common psychological defense
mechanisms are the following:

a. Denial
refusal to recognize a threatening situation.
b. Repression
pushing threatening situations out of conscious memory.
c. Rationalization
making up acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior.
d. Projection
placing one’s own unacceptable thoughts onto others.

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 e. Reaction Formation
condemns something that has an
unconscious appeal.
f. Displacement
transfer of emotions or behaviors to another less threatening.
g. Regression
falling back on childlike patterns as a way of coping with stressful
situations. h. Identification
trying to become like someone else to deal with one’s anxiety.
i. Compensation (Substitution)
trying to make up for areas in which a lack is perceived by becoming superior
in some area.
j. Sublimation
turning socially unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behavior.

According to Feud, “the cornerstone of my work is the workings of the repressed

unconscious: people’s lives are partly shaped by emotional experiences, traumas and ‘family
romances’ which then become too difficult to confront and so become hidden from the
surface workings of life, while still motivating our actions”.

6. Bandura’s Self as Proactive and Agentic

Stanford University Psychologist, Albert Bandura, proposed a social cognition theory that
views people as agents (originators) of experience not just reactive. He suggests that human
have the ability to act and make things happen. He developed four (4) agentic perspectives.
a. Intentionally
Enables us to behave with purpose
b. Forethought
Allows us to anticipate outcomes
c. Self-reactiveness
We can be motivated to regulate our actions
d. Self-reflectiveness
We can reflect our thoughts and behaviors and make needed modifications

7. Jung’s Self as the Central Archetype

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 Swiss psychologist, Carl Jung,
introduced the concept of archetypes. He
believed that archetypes were models of
people, behavior, or
personality. Archetypes, he suggested,
were inborn tendencies that play a role in
influencing human behavior. In Jungian
psychology, the archetypes
represent universal patterns and
images that are part of the collective
unconscious. The following are the
archetypes as identified by Carl Jung:

a. Persona Photo credit: Hugo Lin of Verywell (2019)

One’s “public personality” or mask;

one’s social roles
b. Shadow
One’s dark side, parts of ourselves that we dislike
c. Self
Central archetypes of personality, represents wholeness
d. Anima
Female archetypes, or “feminine side”
e. Animus
Male archetypes, or “male side: projected by a woman

Lesson 4:
Western and Eastern Concept of the Self
Lesson Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Identify the different ideas in psychology about the “self”;
2. Create your own definition of the “self” based on the definitions from psychology; and
3. Analyze the effects of various factors identified in psychology in the formation of the “self.”

INTRODUCTION
Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of the “self” and
one of the most distinctions between cultures and people is the Eastern-vs-Western dichotomy
wherein Eastern represents Asia while Western represents Europe and Northern America. It must
be understood that this distinction and the countries included was politically colored at the time
that the aforementioned concepts were accepted and used in the social sciences. Furthermore, it

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must be reiterated that while countries who are geographically
closer to each other may share commonalities, there are also a
lot of factors that create differences. In the Philippines alone,
each region may have similar or varying perception regarding the
“self”.
Excerpt from “The Self in Western and Eastern
Thoughts” by Alata, Caslib, Serafica, and Pawilen (2018)

WESTERN THOUGHTS
The Western thoughts conducted scientific investigations in the effort to understand the
self and have developed theories and difference among them. They emphasized the importance
of scientific methods of investigation to provide satisfactory answers to understanding the self. In
the Western thought, the emphasis is individualistic rather than relational. Most of the
philosophers we have discussed in our previous lessons fall under western thoughts.

EASTERN THOUGHTS
Many movements of Eastern thoughts raise questions about the ultimate meaning of
human life. They have developed theories of self as they have investigated what it means to be a
human being. Eastern thoughts aim at transformations in:
a. Consciousness
b. Feelings
c. Emotions
d. one’s relation to other people and the world.
In the Eastern thought, the emphasis is relational rather than individual. The self is
considered not in isolation but in relation to others, society, and the universe. Eastern theories are
therefore highly practical. They offer a variety of techniques for cultivating a deeper understanding
of the self. They do not utilize the scientific techniques of investigation.

1. Buddhism
Buddhism comes from the root word “budh” meaning awake which implies that when the
eyes are open, it would be lead to understanding more about the self and world. Siddharta
Gautama Known as Buddha is the founder of Buddhism.
According to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the seed of enlightenment,
hence, potential to be a Buddha. However, the seed should be nurtured. They also believe that
man is just a title for the summation of the five parts that compose the individual; however each
of the parts distinctly is not man. The five (5) parts that compose an individual are (1) matter, (2)
sensation, (3) perception, (4) mental constructs, and (5) consciousness.
Buddhists believes that there is no self (or soul); there is only nothing and all else is an
illusion. They also believe that nothing is permanent, but change. The ignorance of the
impermanence of everything may lead to an illusion of selfhood. For them, it is ideal to experience
Nirvana, a state of transcendence devoid of self- reference. This state of transcendence can be
achieved through meditation.
2. Hinduism

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 Hindus believe that Atman (a Sanskrit word means inner
self, spirit or soul) being an immortal soul continues to be
reincarnated from lifetime to lifetime until it is freed from the
cycle of rebirth and reach a state of nirvana or non-birth. The
most important doctrine of Hinduism is the Law of Karma which implies that all actions will lead
to either good or bad outcomes in one’s life. Karma does not end with a body’s death; its influence
may extend through incarnation of the soul. The goal of man is to have knowledge of the true
reality –Brahman.
3. Confucianism
The core of Confucian thought is the Golden Rule of the principle of reciprocity: “Do not
do others what you would not want others to do to you”. Another important feature in Confucian
thought is the individual’s greatest mission of attaining self-realization wherein self-cultivation is
instrumental. Self-cultivation could be accomplished by knowing one’s role in the society and act
accordingly. Based on Confucian thought, moral character is perfected through continuously taking
every opportunity to improve oneself in thought and action.
4. Taoism
Taoism believes that the self is an extension of the cosmos, not of social relationships.
They describe the self as one of the limitless forms of the Tao. The Tao is commonly regarded as a
nature that is the foundation of all that exists. It is not bounded by time and space and the ideal is
to identify with the Tao. Based on Taoism, the perfect man has no self and the selfless person leads
to a balanced life, in harmony with both nature and society.
Taoists believe that simplicity, spontaneity, and harmony with nature should govern one’s
life; therefore, there should be unity and harmony among opposing elements: the Yin and Yang.

WESTERN THOUGHTS VERSUS EASTERN View

of
THOUGHTS the
Univ
DIMENSION WESTERN THOUGHTS erse
Line
Frame of reference There is a separation between ar
philosophy and religion/spirituality. and
Examples of School of Scholasticism Life
Thought/Belief system Rationalism Subjects-Objects Duality of self a
Empiricism subject (knower) and
phenomenology Distinction (Bipolar self as object
Notable Philosophers Socrates (known)
Plato Qualities of Self)
Aristotle Theological View Monotheistic
Rene Descartes Ideal Self-
John Locke actualiz
Source of knowledge Has made use of reason rather than ation
faith to pursue wisdom. through
Modes of Cognition Analytic and Deductive persona
Emphasis Distinctions and Opposition l growth

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Cultural Framework Individualism
1. The self distinct and autonomous
entity; it is an independent part of
the universe and the society.
2. Independence and self-reliance are
core values.
3. Prioritize personal goals over group
goals
4. Characterized by exchange
relationship
5. Uniqueness, sense of direction,
purpose and volition are the
acknowledged features of self.
6. Personal success is important.
EASTERN THOUGHT
Religion and philosophy are intertwined.
Hinduism
Buddhism
Confucianism
Taoism
Confucius
Lao Tzu
Siddharta Gautama (Buddha)

Has trusted intuition and is often associated with religious

beliefs. Synthetic and inductive
Commonalities and harmonies
Circular

Simultaneously subject and object (The experience of self as

both knower and known)
Polytheistic(pluralistic) To achieve a balanced life and find
one’s role in society. Collectivism
1. The self is an integrated part of the universe and the society.
2. Interdependence and connectedness are core values.
3. No distinctions between personal and group goals, the
personal goals are subordinate t the group goals.
4. Characterized by communal relationship conformity and
obedience are essential social behaviours.
5. Duty towards all others is important

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Photo credit : Psychology Today (n.d.)

Lesson 4: The Spiritual

Chapter 2: Self
Lesson 5: The Political
Self
Unpacking the Self Lesson 6: The Digital
Lesson 1: The Physical Self Self
Lesson 2: The Sexual Self
Lesson 3: The Material Self

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Lesson 1:
The Physical Self
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Understand the stages of life and explain the physical changes that occur during each
stage;
2. Identify the contributions of genetic and environmental factors on physical development
of the self;
3. Describe the factors that affect body image;
4. Examine the impact of the culture on the body image and self; and
5. Develop a positive body image.

STAGES OF LIFE SPAN

The Physical Self refers to the body that includes basic parts such as head, neck, arms, and legs. It
is also made up of other organs such as the brain, heart, lungs, stomach, intestines, and muscles;
these organs works together to perform many of its functions such as breathing, walking and
dancing.
The body’s ability to perform its functions gradually changes through the years. In general,
the body performs its functions least well during (1) infancy and (2) old age. Physical efficiency
generally peaks in early adulthood and declines into the middle age. Physical development and
growth during childhood continues at a slow rate compared with rapid rate of growth in babyhood.
Each individual goes through a succession of the development stages. One of the most crucial
stage of development is the adolescence stage. The adolescence is the stage of development
characterized by rapidly physical changes that includes the maturation of the reproductive system.
It begins with the onset of puberty.
Elizabeth B. Hurlock (2001) outlined the stages of lifespan or the development from conception
to death. She divided the stage into ten (10) parts:
1. Prenatal - fertilization to the birth
2. Infancy - birth to 2 weeks of life
3. Babyhood - 2 weeks of life to 2nd year
4. Early Childhood - 2 to 6
5. Late Childhood - 6 to 10 or 12
6. Puberty - 10 or 12 to 14
7. Adolescence - 14 to 18
8. Early Adulthood - 18 to 40

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 9. Middle Adulthood - 40 to 60
10. Late Adulthood - 60 to death
Part of these stages is changes in the body. For the
longest time, there has been on-going debate on the factors that
affecting physical growth and development. Socio-biologists, psychologists and others in the
natural sciences argue that behavior traits can be explained by genetics. On the other hand,
Sociologists, anthropologists and others in the social sciences argue that human behavior is
learned and shaped trough interaction. Based on these arguments, two (2) factors are considered.
1. Heredity
Heredity is the biological process of transmission of traits from parents of
offspring. the sex and other physical traits are determined by the combination of (1)
chromosome and (2) genes during fertilization (the union of the two cells: Egg and
Sperm). Chromosomes are thread like tissues that carries the genes, and are usually
found in pairs; classified as autosomes or trait chromosomes (22 pairs) and gonosome
or sex chromosomes. A human typically has 23 pairs of chromosomes. Genes, on the
other hand, are the basic carriers of hereditary traits. It can be classified into
Dominant (strong genes) and Recessive (weak genes).
2. Environment
Environment refers to the factors to which the individual is exposed after
conception to death which includes learning and experience. Factors such as diet,
nutrition, and diseases play an important role in physical development.

BODY IMAGE
Body image refers to how individuals perceive, think, and feel about their body and
physical appearance. Appearance refers to everything about a person that others can observe such
as height, weight, skin color, clothes, and hairstyle. Through appearances, people show others the
kind of persons they are.
It appears that the body image is related to self-esteem. Self-esteem is a person’s overall
evaluation of his or her own worth. Low self-esteem is very common is adolescents. Adolescents
worry about different parts of their bodies. Younger women and girls tend to have poor body
image. Three (3) of the most common causes of poor body image are:
1. Emphasis on thin ideal body
lead girls to experience body dissatisfaction
2. Bullying and peer pressure
have been associated with greater body dissatisfaction.
3. Media
such as television, advertisements, music and movies.
filled with good-looking faces, making women and men more concerned with
physical attractiveness.
results to paying a great deal of money for the physical attractiveness that women
and men want to achieve
The reality, however, is that the standards of beauty presented in the media are
so unrealistic.

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 Body image can affect both the adolescent’s physical and
psychological well-being. Some of the effects of poor body
image include:
1. Body dissatisfaction
2. Depression
3. Low-self esteem
4. Eating disorder
a. Bulimia
the person induces
purging after binging on Photo credit: Limerick Mental Health Association (n.d.)
large quantities of food.

b. Anorexia Nervosa
eating disorder in which the person refuses to eat
for fear of gaining weight
can result in severe starvation and death
mostly afflicts females between the ages of 12 and
40, although men may also develop it.
5. Body modification
– some people desperate change their physical appearance
– Different forms:
Tattooing
Permanent make-up
Body piercing
Cosmetic surgery

CONCEPT OF BEAUTY
In Egyptian art, beauty is portrayed in women
with slim, high waist, narrow hips, and long black hair.
Women with full figure and rounded hips were
considered beautiful during the Renaissance period.
Some tribes (e.g., Africa) during the medieval age
consider chubby, fat, or plum women beautiful. On the
other hand, some tribes in Malaysia, Philippines and
Indonesia considered flat noses to be the most attractive.
Standards of beauty have change over time
based on changing cultural values. However, all cultures
have, more or less, the same concept standards of
beauty. Traditionally considered the most beautiful have:
1. clean and unblemished skin
2. thick shinny hair
3. well-proportioned bodies, and Photo
credit: Negro Woman by Ilya Repin (1876)

20 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

 4. symmetrical faces
Beauty is considered important throughout history. This
is because these features indicate youth, health, good genes, and
fertility. Beauty is important in all societies. Attractive people
have a lot of advantages in life. For example, men tend to seek attractive women as mates. Studies
have shown that men and women who are physically attractive have more opportunities such as
job promotion, and income. Also, people tend to view attractive people as good, happier, smarter,
and better people. Generally, unattractive people are less like and assisted.
It is, however, important to note that above all things physical, it is more important to be

beautiful in the inside.

Lesson 2: The
Sexual Self
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain the development of sex characteristics and human reproductive system;
2. Describe the erogenous zones and understand human sexual response;
3. Understand attraction, love, and attachment;
4. Explain sexual orientation;
5. Identify the causes and consequences of sexually transmitted infections and early
pregnancy; and
6. Reflect on the importance of contraception and Reproductive Health Law.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

The beginning of adolescence is marked by rapid physical changes including the maturation of the
reproductive system and the development of different sexual characteristics. There are two (2)
types of sexual characteristics. The first one is called Primary Sex Characteristics; these are physical
characteristics that are present at birth. In women, these characteristics include the vagina, uterus,
and ovaries. In men, the primary sex characteristics include the penis, testes or testicles, scrotum,
and prostate gland. Basically, primary sex characteristics are body structures that make the
reproduction possible.

The other sexual characteristic is called Secondary Sexual Characteristics. Unlike the primary
sexual characteristics, the Secondary Sexual Characteristics develop during the onset of puberty.

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For women, the earliest evidences of puberty are the
enlargement of the breasts, menstrual cycle, widening of hips,
enlargement of buttocks, and growth of pubic hair. Testicular
growth, sperm production, appearance of facial, pubic, and other
body hair, and deepening of voice are some of the first signs of puberty in men.

Photo credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (n.d)

Another important part of physical development is hormones. Hormones are natural substance
that is produced in the body that influences the way the body grows or develops.
Testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone are some examples of hormones.
During puberty, testosterone and other androgens stimulate the development of primary
and secondary sex characteristics and also increase sex drive. The level of testosterone production
is fairly constant.
In women, the ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone as well as small amount of
testosterone. Estrogen promotes female reproductive capacity and secondary sex characteristics.
The production of female sex hormones follows a cyclical pattern, on an approximately 28-day
monthly cycle. The greatest production occurs during ovulation period, when an egg is released
from the ovaries. The two ovaries produce, store and release egg cells during ovulation. Ovulation
period can occur 14 days after the beginning of the menstrual period.
Reproductive system is the system of sex organs designed for reproduction or sexual
function. Female reproductive system includes two ovaries, the fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina,
and clitoris. On the other hand, male reproductive system includes penis, testes, scrotum, prostate
gland, seminal vesicles, vas deferens, and epididymis.

WHAT TURNS PEOPLE ON?

Human sexual arousal may be produced by direct stimulation of the body’s erogenous zones.
Erogenous zones refer to parts of the body that are receptive and increase sexual arousal when
touched in a sexual manner. According to Freud, erogenous zones are areas of the body that
provide pleasure. Some of the commonly known erogenous zones are the genitals, mouth, breast,
ears, anus, and to lesser degree, the entire surface of the body.
One of the most basic sexual stimulation is masturbation of self-stimulation that causes sexual
pleasure or orgasm. Other sexual activities such as intimate kissing, cuddling, necking, petting, or
touching the erogenous zones may be uniquely important to sexual arousal.

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 In many species sexual arousal is closely
tied to variations in hormonal levels; in humans,
however, hormones play less of a role. In one
sense, the brain is where sexual desire
originates and where sexual behaviour is
controlled. Cognitive factors thus play an
important role in sexual arousal in humans.
Culture also influences the expression of sexual
desire.
Photo credit: nd300 (n.d.)
William Masters and Virginia Johnson used the term sexual- response cycle to describe
the changes that occur in the body as men and women become sexually aroused. They divided the
sexual response cycle into four (4) phases.

1. Excitement Phase
– beginning of sexual arousal
– can last from one minute to several hours
– Pulse rate increases, blood pressure rises, breathing quickens, and the skin shows
a rosy flush particularly on the chest and breast area during this phase – The
nipples harden and erect in both men and women.
– In men, the penis becomes erect, the skin of the scrotum thickens, and the testes
increase in size.
– In women, the clitoris swells, the lip of the vagina open, and the inside of the
vagina moistens in preparation of sexual intercourse.
2. Plateau Phase
– the change in the body are continued
– Breathing becomes more rapid, heart rate increases, body temperature rises, and
blood pressure increases during this stage.
– In men, the penis become more erects, the circumference of its head increases,
and releases few drops of fluid.
– In women, the outer part of the vagina swells with increased amount of blood to
that area, while the clitoris retracts under the clitoral hood nut remains highly
sensitive.
– The outer lip of the vagina becomes redder in colour.
3. Orgasmic_ Phase
– orgasmic contractions of the muscles happens in the release of the semen which
contains the sperm cells
– Men usually achieve one intense orgasm.
– In women, orgasm involves the contraction of the pelvic muscles that surround
the vaginal walls and can happen multiple times.

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 4. Resolution Phase
– the body returns to its
normal state after orgasm
– In men, the erection is
lost, the testes decrease in
size and the skin of scrotum
thins again.
– In women, the clitoris,
the color of the outer lip of the vagina, and the lips of the vagina return to its
normal state.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY

Sexual orientation refers to sexual and romantic feelings for people of the same gender, a
different gender, or more than one gender. People who identify their sexual orientation as
“straight” or “heterosexual” typically feel attracted to people of a different gender than
themselves. People who identify as “lesbian” or “gay” typically feel attracted to people of the same
gender as themselves. People who identify as “bisexual” typically feel attracted to more than one
gender, such as being attracted to both women and men. “Pansexual” is a term used by people
who feel attracted to more than one gender and feel that other terms don’t include people who
are transgender and gender nonconforming (people who have a gender identity or gender
expression that doesn’t match their sex assigned at birth). People who use the term “queer” may
use it to mean lesbian, gay, bisexual, or pansexual, or they may use it because other terms don’t
quite describe their experiences.
Some people might identify their sexual
orientation one way, but experience attractions that
don’t match the label they are using. For example, a
person might identify as “straight,” but feel attracted to
people of the same gender or more than one gender
and sometimes act on those attractions. Sexual
orientation can also change over time for some people.
For example, a person might be attracted only to
people of the same gender as themselves, and then
later be attracted to more than one gender. This is
normal! It just means that sexual orientation is
complicated for some people.

Gender identity is a person’s internal feelings Photo credit: Etalent Entertainment (2013)
of being a woman, man, both, or neither. Most people have a gender identity and/or gender
expression (how a person shows their gender through their appearance or behavior) that matches
their sex assigned at birth. However, some people have a gender identity or gender expression

24 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

that is different from their sex assigned at birth; these people
might use the term “transgender” or “gender nonconforming” to
describe their gender identity.
Gender can be expressed in many ways:
through our clothes, speech, activities, hobbies,
and our behaviors. It’s ok for any of these things
to change at different times, or in different
situations, depending on what feels
comfortable.
Many people confuse the two, but here
is a simple way to understand the difference:
gender identity is more about “who you are”
(boy, girl, both, or neither)
and sexual orientation is about “who you Photo credit: Angela Ponce (2018)
have a crush on.”

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs), sometimes called Sexually Transmitted Infections
(STIs), are infections that can be transmitted from an infected person to an uninfected person
through sexual activity such as anal, vaginal, and oral sex (Alata, Caslib, Serafica, and Pawilen,
2018). According to the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (2017) of the National
Institute of Health of the United States, STDs can be caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites.
STDs are a significant global health priority due to its impact on woman and infants.
According to Alata, Caslib, Serafica, and Pawilen (2018), STDs can lead to long term health
problems including “pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, tubal and ectopic pregnancy, cervical
cancer, and perinatal or congenital infections in infants born to infected mothers”. Some of the
most common STDs are:

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1. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and
Auto Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
are terms used interchangeably. However,
HIV infection and AIDS are not the same
condition, and they are not the same
diagnosis. HIV is a virus that attacks a type
of white blood cell called a CD4 cell in the
body's immune system. It reduces the
body's ability to fight infection and illness
(Center for Disease Control and Prevention,
n.d).
However, treatment with antiretroviral Photo credit: [Public Domain] via Wikimedia Commons therapy
can minimize the effect of the virus by slowing or halting its progression. Treatment can
now reduce the amount of virus in the bloodstream to levels where it is no longer
detectable. This means the body remains healthy, and the virus cannot be transmitted.
On the other hand, AIDS is a syndrome, or range of symptoms, that may develop in
time in a person with HIV who does not receive treatment. A person can have HIV
without developing AIDS, but it is not possible to have AIDS without first having HIV.

2. Chlamydia
Chlamydia is a common STD that can infect both men
and women. It can cause serious, permanent damage to a
woman’s reproductive system. This can make it difficult or
impossible for her to get pregnant later on. Chlamydia can
also cause a potentially fatal ectopic pregnancy
(pregnancy that occurs outside the womb).
You can get chlamydia by having vaginal, anal, or oral
sex with someone who has chlamydia. If your sex partner
is male you can still get chlamydia even if he does not Photo credit: MedlinePlus (n.d.)

ejaculate (cum). If you’ve had chlamydia and were treated in the past, you can still get
infected again. This can happen if you have unprotected sex with someone who has
chlamydia. If you are pregnant, you can give chlamydia to your baby during childbirth
(Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d).

3. Gonorrhea
Gonorrhea can infect both men and women. It can cause infections in the genitals,
rectum, and throat. It is a very common infection, especially among young people ages
15-24 years (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d).
You can get gonorrhea by having vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who has
gonorrhea. Furthermore, a pregnant woman with gonorrhea can give the infection to
her baby during childbirth. Some men with gonorrhea may have no symptoms at all.
However,

26 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

 men who do have symptoms may have burning
sensation when urinating. a white, yellow, or green
discharge from the penis, and painful or swollen
testicles (although this is less common).
Most women with gonorrhea do not have any
symptoms. Even when a woman has symptoms, they
are often mild and can be mistaken for a bladder or
vaginal infection. Women with gonorrhea are at risk of
19
developing serious complications from the infection,
even if they don’t have any symptoms.

Photo credit: Daily Health Nigeria

4. Syphilis
Syphilis is divided into stages (primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary), with
different signs and symptoms associated with each stage. A person with primary syphilis
generally has a sore or sores at the original site of infection. These sores usually occur
on or around the genitals, around the anus or in the rectum, or in or around the mouth.
These sores are usually (but not always) firm, round, and painless. Symptoms of
secondary syphilis include skin rash, swollen lymph nodes, and fever. The signs and
symptoms of primary and secondary syphilis can be mild, and they might not be
noticed. During the latent stage, there are no signs or symptoms. Tertiary syphilis is
associated with severe medical problems. A doctor can usually diagnose tertiary
syphilis with the help of multiple tests. It can affect the heart, brain, and other organs
of the body (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d).

5. Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common

sexually transmitted infection in the United States. 79
million Americans, most in their late teens and early 20s,
are infected with HPV. It is most commonly spread during
vaginal or anal sex. Some health effects caused by HPV can
be prevented by the HPV vaccines.
Anyone who is sexually active can get HPV, even if you
have had sex with only one person. You also can develop
symptoms years after you have sex with someone who is
infected. This makes it hard to know when you first became
infected. Photo credit: Harvard Health (n.d.)
In most cases, HPV goes away on its own and does not
cause any health problems. But when HPV does not go away, it can cause health
problems like genital warts and cancer (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d).

6. Herpes Simplex Virus

Herpes Simplex Virus is among the most prevalent of sexually transmitted

infections. Although, most infections are subclinical, clinical manifestations are
characterized by recurrent, painful genital and/or anal lesions. Most genital HSV
infections in the United States are caused by HSV type 2 (HSV-2), while HSV type 1
(HSV-1) infections are orolabial and acquired during childhood (Center for Disease
Control and Prevention, n.d).

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7. Trichomoniasis

Trichomoniasis (or “trich”) is an STD that is caused by

infection with a protozoan parasite called Trichomonas Vaginalis. It is associated with
adverse health outcomes such as preterm birth and symptomatic vaginitis. Although
symptoms of the disease vary, most people who have the parasite cannot tell they are
infected.
Trichomoniasis is the most common curable
STD. In the United States, an estimated 3.7
million people have the infection. However, only
about 30% develop any symptoms of
trichomoniasis. Infection is more common in
women than in men. Older women are more
likely than younger women to have been
infected with trichomoniasis (Center for Disease
Control and Prevention, n.d).

TRIANGULAR THEORY OF LOVE

The triangular theory of love holds that love can be understood in terms of three
components that together can be viewed as forming the vertices of a triangle. The triangle
is used as a metaphor, rather than as a strict geometric model. These three components
are intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment. Each component manifests a different
aspect of love.

1. Intimacy
Intimacy refers to feelings of closeness, connectedness, and bondedness in
loving relationships. It thus includes within its purview those feelings that give
rise, essentially, to the experience of warmth in a loving relationship (Sternberg,
1986).
2. Passion
Passion refers to the drives that lead to romance, physical attraction, sexual
consummation, and related phenomena in loving relationships. The passion
component includes within its purview those sources of motivational and other

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 forms of arousal that lead to the experience of
passion in a loving relationship (Sternberg, 1986).
3. Commitment
Commitment refers, in the short-term, to the decision that one loves a
certain other, and in the long-term, to one's commitment to maintain that love.
These two aspects of the decision/commitment component do not necessarily
go together, in that one can decide to love someone without being committed
to the love in the longterm, or one can be committed to a relationship without
acknowledging that one loves the other person in the relationship (Sternberg,
1986).
RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD
Responsible parenthood is the will and ability of parents to respond to the needs and
aspirations of the family and children. It is a shared responsibility of the husband and the
wife to determine and achieve the desired number, spacing, and timing of their children
according to aspirations, psychological preparedness, health status, socio-cultural, and
economic status (Directional Plan of POPCOM, n.d).

Family Planning is a program that enables parents to deliberately and responsibly decide
the number and spacing of their children. It is an expression of responsible parenting based
on informed choices and decisions of couples based on their social and economic capacity.

According to UN Population Fund (UNFPA), teenage pregnancy has a huge rate among the
poor. About 67% that give birth before age 20 belongs to the low class society. In the
Philippines, about 8% among 1.7 million babies born in 2004 were born to mothers 15-19
years old. Almost one of every 10 babies is born to teenage mothers (National Statistics
Office, n.d).

Abortion is also common in the country. According to Population Institute of the

University of the Philippines, more than 46% of
teenage pregnant woman resort to induced
abortion and 2 of every 5 teenage pregnancies are
unwanted ones. This increase in population as
well as teen age pregnancy leads to the passing of
The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive
Health Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10354),
informally known as the Reproductive Health Law
or RH Law. It is a law which guarantees universal
access to methods of contraception, fertility
control, sexual education and maternal care. Photo credit: Zamora (2009)
However, it was met with opposition most specially from the religious sector.

Method of contraception can be categorized into three (3); Old Methods,

Traditional/Natural Contraceptives, and Modern Contraceptive Methods.

1. Old Methods
a. Chinese women drink lead and mercury to control fertility
b. Herbs, olive oil, ginger, tobacco juices to kill semen

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 c. 1600: French prostitutes used acidic douches
d. Greek women jump seven times backward after
intercourse

2. Traditional/Natural Contraceptives
a. Periodic Abstinence
Calendar/Rhythm
Cervical Mucus
b. Withdrawal Calendar Method
– Also called Coitus Interruptus
– Ejaculation outside the vagina
– High failure rate due to pre-ejaculation
c. Lactational Amenorrhea Method (LAM)
– Contraceptive method based on breastfeeding
– Effective up to 6 months after child birth
– Exclusive breastfeeding, menstrual cycle not yet
returned

3. Modern Contraceptive Methods

a. Hormonal Methods
– Works by preventing the ovary from releasing an egg, thickening the cervical
mucus making it difficult for the sperm to reach the egg, and changing the
lining of the uterus making implantation difficult.
Pills
Injectable
Implants
b. Barriers Methods
Pills
– Prevents pregnancy by blocking the egg and
sperm from meeting
– Have higher failure rates than hormonal methods due to design and
human error
Spermicides
Male Condoms
Female Condoms
Diaphragm
Cervical Cup
Intrauterine Devices (IUD)
c. Emergency Contraceptive
– Must be taken within 72 hours of
the act of unprotected intercourse
or failure of contraception method
– Floods the ovaries with high amount of hormone and prevents ovulation
– Alters the environment of the uterus, making it disruptive to the egg and
sperm d. Surgical Methods

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 – Involves surgical procedure to prevent
fertilization of the egg
Tubal Ligation
Vasectomy

Vasectomy

Lesson 3:
The Material Self
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Develop understanding about material self;
2. Describe the basic components of material self;
3. Discuss the influence of media in material possessions; and 4.
Develop the qualities of wise buyer.

WE ARE WHAT WE HAVE

Harvard psychologist, William James, defined the material self as “sum total
of all he call his, not only his body psychic powers, but his clothes and his house, his
wife and children. His ancestors and friends, his reputation and works, his land, his
yacht and bank account, all these things give him the same emotions. If they wax
and prosper, he feels triumphant; if they dwindle and die away, he feels cast down
– not necessarily in the same degree for each thing, but in much the same way for
all”. He proposed that the material self is composed of four (4) parts:

1. Body
– Inner most part of our material self
– We are directly attached to this commodity that we cannot live without – We
strive to make sure that this body functions well and good.
– Any ailment or disorder directly affects us.
– We do have certain preferential attachment to or intimate closeness to
certain parts because of its value to us.
– There were people who get their certain body parts insured.
– Celebrities like Mariah Carrey reportedly insured her vocal cords and legs.
– One of the tasks of adolescents is that of accepting and appreciating the
physical characteristics of their body.
– Few adolescents are able to do this successfully.

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 – Adolescents tend to worry about their bodies and
physical appearance.

2. Clothes
– The style and the brand of clothes becomes a symbolic significance
– The fabric and style of the clothes we wear bring sensations to the bod and
can affect our attitude and behavior.
– The material component of the self can include books, bed, money, car,
house and other things that person can call his own possession.
– Clothing is a form of self expression
– We choose and wear clothes that reflect our self

3. Immediate Family
– These people are likely to shape and influence the
development of self-identity.
– Our siblings and parents hold a great important part of
our self
– What they do or become affects us
– We place huge investment in our immediate family when we see them as the
nearest replica of our self.
– When an immediate family member dies, part of our self dies.
– When their lives are in success, we feel victorious as if we are the one holding
the trophy.
– In their failures, we are put to shame or guilt.
– When they are in a disadvantageous situation, there is an urgent urge to help
– Pets could also symbolically define a person’s identity.
– A person’s pet could be an expression of one’s social status, pride and
prestige.
4. Home
– “Home is where your heart is.”
– It is earliest nest of our selfhood
– Our experiences inside the home were recorded and marked on particular
parts and things in our home
– Just like the saying “if only walls can speak”.
– The home is thus an extension of self, because in it, we can directly connect
our self.
EFFECTS OF MATERIAL POSSESSIONS
Regardless of how much or how little material possessions people have, they
are interested in material possessions. Possessions can be used as status, symbol.
Cars, house, gadgets, and clothes are the most valuable possessions because they
are the most visible in the eye of the others. The more expensive, the more other

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people are impressed. Material possessions can be a
reflection of hard work and success. People tend to measure
success through material possession. Material possession
can make people more motivated to work harder to achieve them. Defining the self
by material possessions can also contribute to feelings of well-being, including a
sense of personal growth and purpose or meaning in life. However, lack or loss of
material possessions can be disruptive to the mental health of some people.
Materialism is the negative effect of the strong desire for material
possessions. It is the importance people give on material possessions. Someone
with a high level of materialism is called materialistic. A materialistic person is
excessively concerned with the acquisition of material possessions
The strong desire of material possessions could lead to psychological
dysfunction or impairment in functioning such as Compulsive Buying Disorder (CBD)
which is characterized by an obsession with shopping and buying behaviours that
causes adverse consequences (e.g., debts). Psychologists are identifying social and
cultural factors that seem strongly implicated in the aetiology of materialism. Lack
or loss of material possessions could lead to anxiety, insecurity, and depression.

Lesson 4:
The Spiritual Self

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Demonstrate understanding of the spiritual self;
2. Explain the importance of spirituality in one’s life;
3. Discuss how spirituality is connected to religion;
4. Describe how spirituality develops; and
5. Identify the different spiritual beliefs of indigenous people in the Philippines.

SPIRITUALITY
Spirituality is the quality or state of being concerned with religion or religious
matters. It came from latin word “spiritus”, meaning breathe or life force. Spirituality can be
understood as a search for the sacred, a process through which people seek to discover,
transform whatever they hold sacred in their lives. The sacred could refer to God and
transcendence.
The term “spirituality” was originally developed in early Christianity. Christians use
the term “spirit” to describe the Holy Spirit. Christians use the term “spirit” to describe the
Holy Spirit. In Christian Ethics, the experience of the sacred is characterized by reverence,
faith, fear, love and admiration which is intimately connected to God. Worship is regarded
as an essential act to realize the ultimate meaning of transcendence and human life.

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 The Spiritual self is the most intimate, inner subjective
part of the self because of the satisfaction experience when
thinking of someone’s ability to argue and discriminate of one’s
moral sensibility and conscience, and of our unconquerable will is purer than other
sentiments of satisfaction. The ability to use moral sensibility and conscience may be seen
through the expressions of religion, its belief, and practices. In the same manner, cultural
rituals and ceremonies are some manifestations of what people believe in. Moreover;
seeking the meaning of life that the spiritual self is on
Understanding and nurturing the spiritual self is as important as the other aspects
of the self. Understanding and developing awareness of the spiritual self gives the person a
feeling of oneness with God and the universe. It also gives a deeper purpose or meaning of
one’s life.
Religion recognizes the importance of spirituality in one’s life. It’s central function
to know God. Religious beliefs and practices make people close to God. Rebecca Stein
(2011) defined religion “as a set of cultural beliefs and practices that usually includes some
or all of basic characteristics.” These characteristics are:
1. A belief in anthropomorphic supernatural being such as spirits and gods.
2. A focus on the sacred supernatural where sacred refers to a feeling of reverence
and awe.
3. The presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural
beings as well as physical beings and objects.
4. The performance of ritual activities that involves the manipulation of sacred
objects to communicate to supernatural beings and/or to influence or control
events.
5. The articulation of world view and moral codes to narratives and other means.
6. Provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social
control within a community; provide explanation for unknown and a sense of
control for individuals.
Rituals, on the other hand, is the performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by a tradition
of sacred law (Britannica, 2017). It is a specific observable mode of behavior exhibited by
all known societies. It is possible to view ritual as a way of defining or describing humans.
Participation to rituals is expressions religious beliefs. The fundamental characteristics of
ritual are:
1. A feeling or emotion of respect, awe, fascination, or dread in relation to the
sacred.
2. Dependence upon a belief system that is usually expressed in the language of
myth.
3. Being symbolic according to its reference.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AROUND THE WORLD

1. Buddhism
Buddhism believes that life is not a bed of roses. Instead, there will be suffering and
pain. When people suffer, they want to experience the goodness of life and avoid
disappointments. It became a habit known as the reactive cycle of wanting and hating,
like and dislike, and craving and aversion. This cycle can only be broken through
meditation, acquiring more wisdom and deeper understanding, and acceptance.

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 • Two types of Meditation o Samatha – mindfulness
of breathing and development of loving-kindness o
Vipassana – insight into reality by studying Buddha’s
teaching ---- Dharma
• Major Celebrations o Paninirvana Day in February o
Buddha day (Wesak) in May o Dharma Day in July o
Padmasambhava Day in October o Sangha Day in
November
2. Christianity
Christians believe in the Trinitarian God. They believe in one God in three (3) personas:
the Father (Creator), God the Son (Savior), and God the Holy Spirit (Sustainer). Eternal
life after death will be achieved through faith in Jesus Christ, God the Son, who came
into flesh to spread the good news of salvation, died in the cross for the sin, and
resurrected. The Holy bible is a selection of book divided into two; (1) Old Testament
and (2) New Testament.
• Customs and practices o Sacrament of Baptism that
symbolizes the birth in Christian world
o Sacrament of Communion is the act of
remembrance of Jesus Christ sacrificial lamb.
• Major Celebrations o Christmas Day on December o
Easter Sunday on March or April
3. Hinduism
Hinduism covers a wide range of traditional beliefs and religious
groups; thus, there is no single founder or leader. Hindus believe
that existence is a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth governed by KARMA. Vedas are
sacred scriptures of Hindus.
• Two important text
o Mahabarata and Ramayana
• Major Celebrations o Diwali
Festival – Festival of lights o
Navrati – Festival of nine
nights
4. Islam
Muslims believe in Allah, who is their “One God”. They believe in unity and universality
of God. Muslims also have a strong sense of community called “ummah”. Islam means
willing submission to God. Muslim believe that Mohammed, born in Mecca, is last and
final prophet sent by God. Holy book of Islam is Quran which was taught to be recited
in Arabic because any translation is seemed inadequate.
• Five Pillars of Islam o Shahadah
- the statement of faith.
o Salat - rayer that is practiced five times a day o Zakat - monetary offering
for the benefit of the poor o Hajj - yearly pilgrimage to Mecca o Sawm -

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 fasting that may range from food, drinks, and
sexual act during celebration of Ramadan
• Major Celebrations o Eidul – Fitr – end of
Ramadan o Eidul – Adha - celebrated within the completion of the
pilgrimage - Hajj
5. Judaism
The Jews believe in the God of Abraham, the same God that liberated the Hebrew
slaves from Egypt to Canaan, the Promised Land through the leadership of Moises and
later Joshua. Also, they believe in the coming of Messiah, the Savior. The scared
scripture of the Jews I called Torah or the Law.
• Major Celebrations
o Rosh Hashanah - New Year
o Yom - Day of Atonement o Pesach -
Passover o Shavuot - Pentecost
o Sukkot - Tabernacles

Lesson 5:
The Political Self

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Describe the nature, functions, and origins of political self;
2. Discuss the role of family, school, church, peer groups, and media in the development
of political self;
3. Determine the importance of social interaction in political self;
4. Develop a Filipino identity;
5. Identify different Filipino values and traits; and
6. Reflect on your selfhood in relation to your national identity.

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN POLITICAL SELF

The political self is developed through socialization. Social interaction may

significantly influence a person’s understanding of politics, and perhaps a person’s political
actions in the future. Through social interaction, people learn the status, duties, rights, and
power necessary to interact successfully with other people in the group or community.
Thus, the following social groups play an important role in the development of our political
self:

1. Family has a hierarchical structure, which requires that each member performs their
roles. From an early age, individuals are taught to obey and treat parents with respect
and conform to their rules.

36 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

 2. Schools have the responsibility to each the moral,
spiritual, and political values that will develop the
students to become patriotic and morally upright
citizens.
3. Church also helps shape the ideals of citizenship and democracy through their
teachings, homily, and pastoral letters.
4. Peers become increasingly important in influencing the political self.
5. Mass media could also be a key source of information of politics.

WHO IS A FILIPINO?

According to the Philippine Constitution, Filipinos are “those whose fathers or mothers are
citizen of the Philippines, those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers; who elect
Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age of majority, and those who are naturalized in
accordance with law”. However, citizenship is not the only marker of being a Filipino. Culture
and history have greatly influenced the
manner Filipinos learn, live, and behave to
date.
Culture is defined as the “cumulative deposit
of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values,
attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion,
notions of time, roles, spatial relations,
concepts of the universe, and material
objects and possessions acquired by a group
of people in the course of generations
through individual and group striving”
(Hofstede, 1997). Culture is manifesting
themselves in different ways and levels of
depth. Geert Hofstede (2001) classified Photo credit: Janos Csapo (2012)
manifestation of culture into four categories:

1. Symbols
– Words, gestures, pictures, or
objects that carry a particular meaning which is only recognized by those who
share a particular culture.
– New symbols easily develop, old ones disappear.
– Symbols from one particular group are regularly copied by others.
– This is why symbols represent the outermost layer of a culture.
– Alibata is an example of Filipino symbol.

2.
Heroes
– Persons, past or present, real or fictitious, who possess characteristics that are
highly prized in a culture.
– They also serve as models for behavior.
– This may also include people from the entertainment industry

37 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

 – Famous Filipino Icons such as Lea Salonga, Manny
Pacquiao, and our very own national hero, Jose
Rizal, serve as important Filipino markers as they
have made the Filipino name more pronounced worldwide through their own
expertise.

3.
Rituals
– Collective activities, sometimes superfluous in
reaching desired objectives, but are considered
as socially essential.
– They are therefore carried out most of the times
for their own sake (ways of greetings, paying
respect to others, religious and
social ceremonies, etc.).
– Street parades are very common in the
Philippines. Each village and city has its
own Photo credit Ken RIvera (2018)
“fiesta”.
– Filipinos are also known for three-month
Christmas celebration.

4. Values
– They are broad tendencies for preferences
(good-evil, right-wrong, naturalunnatural).
– Values can only be inferred from the way Photo credit: @iamlolabashang (2014)
people act under different circumstances.
– Filipinos are known for their faith, religiosity and close family ties.
– Another Filipino trait that is known everywhere in the world is the Filipino’s brand
of hospitality.

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER

The Philippines is well-known for its grandiose mountain view, pristine beaches, and
rich and diverse culture. While the country is known for its breath-taking sceneries, the
Filipinos are known for their unique traits, reputable values, and laudable talent. However,
it cannot be denied that there are also negative traits that the Filipinos possess.

STRENGTHS OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER

1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
2. Family Orientation
3. Joy and Humor
4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity
5. Hard work and Industry
6. Faith and Religiosity
7. Ability to Survive

38 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

 WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER
1. Lack of Discipline
2. Ningas Cogon
3. Colonial Mentality
4. Crab Mentality
5. Lack of Self-analysis and Self-reflection
6. Mañana Habit

HOW TO BE A GOOD FILIPINO

1. A sense of patriotism and national pride – a genuine love, appreciation, and
commitment to the Philippines and things Filipino.
2. A sense of the common good – the ability to look beyond selfish interest, a sense
of justice and a sense of outrage it its violation.
3. A sense of integrity and accountability – an aversion toward graft and corruption
in society and an avoidance of practice in one’s daily life.
4. The value and habits of discipline and hard work; and
5. The value and habits of self-reflection and analysis, the internalization of spiritual
values, and an emphasis upon essence rather than on form.

Lesson 6:
The Digital Self
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Demonstrate understanding of the spiritual self;
2. Explain the importance of spirituality in one’s life;
3. Discuss how spirituality is connected to religion;
4. Describe how spirituality develops; and
5. Identify the different spiritual beliefs of indigenous people in the Philippines.

INTRODUCTION
The number of people who are becoming more active online continues to increase
worldwide. More than half of the population worldwide now uses the internet. It has only
been 25 years since Tim Berners-Lee made the World Wide Web available to the public, but
in that tie, the Internet has already become an integral part of everyday life for most of the
world’s population. The Philippines is among one of countries with the most active Internet
users (We are
Social and Hootsuite, n.d)
• Almost two-thirds of the world’s population now has a mobile phone.
• More than half of the world’s web traffic now comes mobile phones.

39 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

 • More than half of all mobile connections around
the world are now “broadband”
• More than one in five of the world’s population
shopped online in the past 30 days. Media users in the Philippines grew by 12 million or
25% while the number of mobile social users increased by 13 million or 32%. Those growth
figures are still higher compared to previous years. More than half the world now uses a
smartphone (Alata, Caslib, Serafica, and Pawilen, 2018).

DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY AND THE SELF

Digital technology includes all types of electronic
equipment and applications that use information in the
form of numeric code. Digital technology includes the use
of devices that process and use digital information. Form of
digital technology includes the use of mobile phones. The
rise of mobile phones has resulted in the widespread use of
internet and social networking. Mobile phones are ever
more becoming part of the daily life of today’s youth. Digital
technology allows the users to keep in touch, connect with
people, and be updated on the activities and whereabouts
of others. However, the use of digital technology limits the Photo credit: @shebanimal (2018)
face to face interaction with others and drawn people away
from meaningful and intimate communication with families and friends. The growing use
of the internet affects social behaviours of individuals, families and societies.
Among Filipino youth, the use of digital technology has now become part of the self
– the digital self. The digital self is the aspect of the self that is expressed or shared to others
through the use of digital technology especially the internet and social networking. On
networking sites, users normally disclose personal information such as name, age,
birthdate, address, and contract number. Some users provide very personal information
about themselves such as like and dislike etc. This sharing of personal information on social
networking sites may be related to the adolescent’s strong desire for social approval and
acceptance. Similar can be said about adults.
The Philippines has the fastest growing internet population in Southeast Asia.
The rise is attributed to social networking. Majority of the Filipinos use the internet
primarily for social networking. The Filipinos youth are the biggest users of social
networking in the past few years. They mostly use social networking for communication,
information, and entertainment. However, it is also through social networking that identity
theft, false information, and fake news circulate. Thus, the Church, schools, and government
in the Philippines makes efforts to prevent and effectively manage the spread of identity
theft, false information, and fake news in the country.

SETTING BOUNDARIES TO YOUR ONLINE SELF: SMART SHARING

Alata, Caslib, Serafica, and Pawilen (2018) developed a guideline to help share information
online the smart way that will protect users and not harm others. Before posting or sharing
online, consider the following:
1. Is this post/story necessary?
2. Is there a real benefit to this post? Is it funny, warm hearted, teachable – or am I
just making noise online without a purpose?

40 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

 3. Have we (as a family or parent/child) resolved this
issue? An issue that is still being worked at home, or
one that is either vulnerable or highly emotional,
should not be made public.
4. Will this seem as funny in 5, 10, or 15 years? Or is this post better suited for
sharing with a small group of family members? Or maybe not at all?
Michelle New (2014) also provided a list of tips for proper sharing of information and
ethical use of the internet.
1. Stick to safer sites. 7. Guard your password
2. Limit what you share. 8. Be Patient
3. Remember that anything you put online or post on a site is
there’s forever, even if you try to delete it.
4. Do not be mean or embarrass other people online.
5. Always tell is you see strange behavior or bad behavior
online.
6. Be choosy about your friends online. Photo credit: Ashfield School (2016)

Photo credit: Hattangadi (n.d. )

Chapter 3:
41 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019
Managing and Caring for the
Self
Lesson 1: Learning to be a Better Learner
Lesson 2: Setting Goals for Success
Lesson 3: Taking charge of one's health

Lesson 1:
Learning to be a Better Learner
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain how learning occurs;
2. Enumerate various metacognition and studying techniques; and
3. Identify your metacognitive techniques that you find most appropriate for yourself.

INTRODUCTION
Knowing the “self” is not enough. Since “who you are” is partly made up of your choices,
you must also have the ability to choose especially to be a better “you”. In school setting,
your knowledge of yourself should at least enable you to become a better student.
This lesson will present several techniques that you can adapt depending on your situation
and preferences to make you a better learner. Learning should not just mean studying for
your quizzes and exams in school. Learning could also occur outside the confines of a book
or classroom, like when you want to acquire a new move for your sports, or the skill for a
certain hobby, among others. Furthermore, the techniques here are not the only
techniques available and months or years from now, new ways on how to study better will
be discovered or rediscovered, what is important at this moment is that you learn how to
learn these things.

Excerpt from “The Self from

Various
Philosophical Perspectives” by Alata, Caslib, Serafica, and Pawilen (2018)

42 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

THINKING ABOUT THINKING
In the context of learning, studies show that when you are able
to think about how you think, how you process information, how you utilize techniques
while studying, you have a higher chance of improving your learning process than those
who does not reflect on their methods. This falls under the concept of metacognition.
Metacognition is commonly defined as “thinking about thinking” (Livingston, 1997).
Metacognition describes the processes involved when learners plan, monitor, evaluate and
make changes to their own learning behaviours. Metacognition is often considered to have
two dimensions:
1. Metacognitive knowledge refers to what learners know about learning. This
includes:
– the learner’s knowledge of their own cognitive abilities (e.g. ‘I have
trouble remembering dates in history’)
– the learner’s knowledge of particular tasks (e.g. ‘The ideas in this chapter
that I’m going to read are complex’)
– the learner’s knowledge of different strategies that are available to them
and when they are appropriate to the task (e.g. ‘If I scan the text first it
will help me to understand the overall meaning').
2. Metacognitive regulation refers to what learners do about learning. It describes
how learners monitor and control their cognitive processes. For example, a
learner might realise that a particular strategy is not achieving the results they
want, so they decide to try a different strategy. It involves three (3) different
phases: planning, monitoring, and evaluation stage (Fogarty, 1994).
A key challenge for teachers is being able to recognise how well their students
understand their own learning processes. David Perkins (1992) defined four levels of
metacognitive learners which provide a useful framework for teachers:
1. Tacit learners are unaware of their metacognitive knowledge. They do not
think about any particular strategies for learning and merely accept if they
know something or not.
2. Aware learners know about some of the kinds of thinking that they do such
as generating ideas, finding evidence etc. However, thinking is not
necessarily deliberate or planned.
3. Strategic learners organise their thinking by using problem-solving,
grouping and classifying, evidence-seeking and decision-making etc. They
know and apply the strategies that help them learn.
4. Reflective learners are not only strategic about their thinking but they also
reflect upon their learning while it is happening, considering the success or
not of any strategies they are using and then revising them as appropriate.
Successful learners typically use metacognitive strategies whenever they learn.
However, they may fail to use the best strategy for each type of learning situation. Connie
Malamed (2013) identified six (6) most common metacognitive strategies used by students.

43 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

 1. Knowing the limits of your own memory for a
particular task and creating a means of external
support.
2. Self-monitoring your learning strategy, such as
concept mapping, and then adapting the
strategy if it isn’t effective.
3. Noticing whether you comprehend something
you just read and then modifying your approach
if you did not comprehend it.
4. Choosing to skim subheadings of unimportant
Photo credit: Minute School (n.d)
information to get to the information you need.
5. Repeatedly rehearsing a skill in order to gain proficiency.
In summary, metacognition is a set of skills that enable learners to become aware
of how they learn and to evaluate and adapt these skills to become increasingly effective at
learning. In a world that demands lifelong learning, providing people with new and
improved metacognitive strategies is a gift that can last forever.

Lesson 2:
Setting Goals for Success
Lesson Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Use Bandura’s self-efficacy theory for self-assessment;
2. Differentiate growth and fixed mindset by Dweck; and 3. Design
personal goals adapting Locke’s goal setting theory.

ALBERT E. BANDURA’S SELF-EFFICACY

The concept of self-efficacy is central to psychologist Albert Bandura’s social
cognitive theory, which emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experience,
and reciprocal determinism in developing a personality. According to Bandura (1977), self-
efficacy is "the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action
required to manage prospective situations." In other words, self-efficacy is a person’s belief
in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Our belief in our own ability to
succeed plays a role in how we think, how we act, and how we feel about our place in the
world. Self-efficacy also determines what goals we choose to pursue, how we go about
accomplishing those goals, and how we reflect upon our own performance (Cherry,
K.,2019). Bandura and other psychologists have found that:
People with strong sense of self-efficacy:
– View challenging problems as tasks to be mastered
– Develop a deeper interest in the activities in which they participate
– Form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities

44 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

 – Recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments
People with a weak sense of self-efficacy:
– Avoid challenging tasks
– Believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities
– Focus on personal failings and negative outcomes
– Quickly lose confidence in personal abilities

Self-efficacy begins to form in early childhood as children deal with a wide variety
of experiences, tasks, and situations. However, the growth of self-efficacy does not end
during youth but continues to evolve throughout life as people acquire new skills,
experiences, and understanding (Cherry, K.,2019). Bandura believes that there are four
major sources of selfefficacy:
1. Mastery Experiences
Performing a task successfully strengthens our sense of self-efficacy. However,
failing to adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-
efficacy.

2. Social Modelling
According to Bandura, "Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained
effort raises observers' beliefs that they too possess the capabilities to master
comparable activities to succeed."
3. Social Persuasion
Getting verbal encouragement from others helps people overcome self-doubt and
instead focus on giving their best effort to the task at hand.
4. Psychological Responses
Our own responses and emotional reactions to situations also play an
important role in self-efficacy. Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and
stress levels can all impact how a person feels about their personal abilities in
a particular situation.

CAROL DWECK’S FIXED AND GROWTH MINDSET THEORY

Stanford psychologist, Carol Dweck, proposes that beliefs play a pivotal role in what
you want and whether you achieve it. Dweck has found that it is your mindset that plays a
significant role in determining achievement and success.
A mindset refers to whether you believe qualities such as intelligence and talent are
fixed or changeable traits. People with a fixed mindset believe that these qualities are
inborn, fixed, and unchangeable. Those with a growth mindset, on the other hand, believe
that these abilities can be developed and strengthened by way of commitment and hard
work (Cherry, K.,2019).
Fixed Mindsets
– Children who are taught that they should look smart instead of loving learning
tend to develop a fixed mindset.
– They tend to create a need for approval.
– They become more concerned with how they are being judged and fear that they
might not live up to expectations.

45 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

 Growth Mindsets
– Kids who are taught to explore, embrace new
experiences, and enjoy challenges are more likely to
develop a growth mindset.
– Rather than seeing mistakes as setbacks, they are willing to try new things and
make errors all in the name of learning and achieving their potential.

Dweck notes that having a growth mindset doesn't involve believing that anyone
can become anything they want with enough education and effort. Not everyone can
become Einstein or Mozart just because they try.

EDWIN LOCKE’S GOAL SETTING THEORY

Goal-Setting Theory started with the ideas from Dr. Edwin A. Locke, in his article,
Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives. In it, he explained the need for clear
and specific goals that are challenging and monitored with regular feedback and progress.
Locke, along with Dr. Gary Latham, came up with five principles of effective goal setting.
These principles, which include clarity, challenge, commitment,
feedback, and task complexity, are the necessary components when
setting, working towards, and achieving a goal (Linberg, S., 2019).
According to the American Psychological Association (AAP),
research shows there are three factors to achieving goals:
• Motivation to change
• Willingness to monitor the behavior
• Willpower to make it happen

All three of these have a place within SMART goals.

1. Specific
When you make your goal specific,
you set yourself up for success.
Consider answering who,
what, where, when, which
and why when getting specific about
your goal.
2. Measurable
What benchmarks will you use to
make sure you are moving forward?
Photo credit: Centre for Collaborative Health (n.d)
How will you know if
you’re successful? How will you know if you need to make
adjustments? Having a goal that you can measure will help you stay on
track and reach your target dates.
3. Attainable or Achievable
Is the goal you’re setting one you can reach? While you don’t want things to
be easy, you also want to avoid setting goals that are out of your reach.
4. Realistic or Relevant
Is your goal relevant to your life, and can you realistically achieve it, based
on your current circumstances? This may be a goal you’ve set before and

46 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

 did not achieve because it was not realistic at the
time. But now, under different circumstances,
this goal may now be realistic.
5. Timely and Tangible
For a goal to be realistic it also has to be grounded within a time frame, and it
needs to be real or tangible.

People with growth mindset, where there is room for improvement of

performance, with a positive perceived self-efficacy, where he or she has high confidence
on his or her capabilities, and has set specific achievable goals, have high possibility to attain
success in life (Alata, Caslib, Serafica, and Pawilen, 2018)..

Lesson 3: Taking charge of one's health

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain the effects of stress to one’s health;
2. Examine cultural dimension of stress and coping; and
3. Design a self-care plan.

UNDERSTANDING THE STRESS RESPONSE

A stressful situation — whether something environmental, such as a looming work
deadline, or psychological, such as persistent worry about losing a job — can trigger a
cascade of stress hormones that produce well-orchestrated physiological changes. A
stressful incident can make the heart pound and breathing quicken. Muscles tense and
beads of sweat appear (Harvard Health, 2011).
This combination of reactions to stress is also known as
the "fight-or-flight" response because it evolved as a survival
mechanism, enabling people and other mammals to react
quickly to life-threatening situations. The carefully orchestrated
yet near-instantaneous sequence of hormonal changes and
physiological responses helps someone to fight the threat off or
flee to safety. Unfortunately, the body can also overreact to
stressors that are not life-threatening, such as traffic jams, work
pressure, and family difficulties (Harvard Health, 2011).
Photo credit: Harvard Health (2011)
The stress response begins in the brain. When someone
experiences a stressful event, the amygdala, an area of the brain that contributes to
emotional processing, sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus. This area of the brain
functions like a command center, communicating with the rest of the body through the
nervous system so that the person has the energy to fight or flee (Harvard Health, 2011).
All of these changes happen so quickly that people aren't aware of them. In fact,
the wiring is so efficient that the amygdala and hypothalamus start this cascade even before
the brain's visual centers have had a chance to fully process what is happening. That's why
people are able to jump out of the path of an oncoming car even before they think about
what they are doing (Harvard Health, 2011).

47 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

TECHNIQUES TO COUNTER CHRONIC STRESS
Many people are unable to find a way to put the brakes
on stress. Chronic low-level stress keeps the HPA axis activated,
much like a motor that is idling too high for too long. After a while, this has an effect on the
body that contributes to the health problems associated with chronic stress.
Fortunately, people can learn techniques to counter the stress response. Harvard
Health (2011) identified three (3) techniques to counter stress:
1. Relaxation response
Dr. Herbert Benson, has devoted much of his career to learning how people can counter
the stress response by using a combination of approaches that elicit the relaxation
response. These include deep abdominal breathing, focus on a soothing word (such as
peace or calm), and visualization of tranquil scenes, repetitive prayer, yoga, and tai chi.
2. Physical activity
People can use exercise to stifle the build-up of stress in several ways. Exercise, such as
taking a brisk walk shortly after feeling stressed, not only deepens breathing but also
helps relieve muscle tension. Movement therapies such as yoga, tai chi, and qi gong
combine fluid movements with deep breathing and mental focus, all of which can
induce calm.
3. Social support
Confidants, friends, acquaintances, co-workers, relatives, spouses, and companions all
provide a life-enhancing social net — and may increase longevity. It's not clear why, but
the buffering theory holds that people who enjoy close relationships with family and
friends receive emotional support that indirectly helps to sustain them at times of
chronic stress and crisis.

SELF-CARE THERAPY
A positive way to counter stress is through self-care therapy. Northern Illinois
University professor, Nancy Apperson (2008), provided steps for self-care:
1. Stop, breathe, and tell yourself: “This is hard and I will get through this one step
at a time.”
2. Acknowledge to yourself, what you are feeling.
3. Find someone who listens and is accepting. You don’t need advice. You need to
be heard.
4. Maintain your normal routine as much as possible. Avoid making major decisions
based on the stress you feel right now.
5. Allow plenty of time for a task. You will not be as productive as you normally are.
Accept how much you are able to do right now and recognize it will not be this
way forever.
6. Take Good Care of Yourself. Remember to:
a. Get enough rest and sleep. Sleep at least 6 hours and not more than 9 hours
b. Eat regularly and make healthy choices. Skipping meals, particularly
breakfast, contributes to fatigue, mood swings, and poor concentration.
c. Know your limits and when you need to let go. Some problems are beyond
our control.
d. Identify or create a nurturing place in your home.

48 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

 e. Practice relaxation or meditation.
f. Escape for a while through meditation, a book,
a movie, or taking a short trip.

49 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | ARCILLAS & ESPINOSA 2019

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