Transformer

Chapter- 1
What is a transformer?
A transformer is a device that transfers electric energy from one
alternating-current circuit to one or more other circuits, either
increasing (stepping up) or reducing (stepping down) the voltage
without changing frequency.

Where are transformers used?

Transformers are employed for widely varying purposes. For example,

a transformer is often used to reduce the voltage of conventional power
circuits to operate low-voltage devices and to raise the voltage from
electric generators so that electric power can be transmitted over long
distances. The efficiency of the electric power transmission has been
improved by the use of transformers.

Why is the iron core of a transformer laminated?

The iron core of a transformer is laminated to reduce eddy currents.

Eddy currents are the small currents that result from the changing
magnetic field created by the alternating current in the first coil. They
need to be minimized so they won’t disturb the flow of electricity from
the primary coil to the secondary coil.

Transformer fundamentals

I1 I2

V1 V2
N1 N2

Here, V1I1 = V2I2 So, V1/V2 = I2/I1. Also, V1/V2 = N1/N2

That means primary volt-amp = secondary volt-amp.
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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
What is no load voltage in transformer?

When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding

is open-circuited, which means there is no load on the secondary side
of the transformer and, therefore, current in the secondary will be zero.

When voltage is applied in the primary coil, a flux will be produced. If

the applied voltage is alternating or changing, the flux will also be
changing. This variable flux will be linked with the voltage. That will
result an induced voltage in the primary according to Faradays law of
induction.
Faraday's first law of electromagnetic induction states, “Whenever
a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an electromotive
force is induced.
The induced voltage in a conductor moving through a magnetic field
is given by Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction:
𝜑
𝐸 ∝ 𝑁( )
𝑡

If we neglect the resistive voltage drop in the coil, the induced voltage
in the primary, E1 will be equal and opposite of the applied voltage V1,
there being nothing else to oppose the applied voltage. Therefore,
V1 = -E1 and
𝜑
𝐸1 ∝ 𝑁1 ( )
𝑡

The same flux  will also be linked with the secondary. That will result
another voltage E2. Therefore,
𝜑
𝐸2 ∝ 𝑁2 ( )
𝑡

From the above two equations, we can have, E1/E2 = N1/N2.

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
Transformer Types
Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid,
distribution sector, transmission and electric energy consumption.
There are various types of transformers which are classified based on
the following factors:

 Working voltage range

 The medium used in the core
 Winding arrangement
 Installation location

Based on Voltage Levels

Commonly used transformer types, depending on the voltage, are
classified as follows:

 Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power

generator and the power grid. The secondary output voltage is
higher than the input voltage.

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
  Step-down Transformer: These transformers are used to
convert high-voltage primary supply to low-voltage secondary
output.

Based on the Medium of Core Used

In a transformer, we will find different types of cores that are used.

 Air Core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and

secondary winding is through the air. The coil or windings wound
on the non-magnetic strip.
 Iron Core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron
plates stacked together, which provides a perfect linkage path to
generate flux.

Based on the Winding Arrangement

 Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a
laminated core. The primary and secondary share the same coil.
Auto means “self” in the Greek language.

Based on Install Location

 Power Transformer: It is used at power generation stations,
as they are suitable for high voltage application
 Distribution Transformer: It is mostly used at distribution
lanes for domestic purposes. They are designed for carrying
low voltages. It is very easy to install and characterised by low
magnetic losses.
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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
  Measurement Transformers: They are mainly used for
measuring voltage, current and power.
 Protection Transformers: They are used for component
protection purposes. In circuits, some components must be
protected from voltage fluctuation, etc. Protection
transformers ensure component protection.

Working Principle of a Transformer

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

There are usually two coils – primary coil and secondary coil – on the
transformer core. The core laminations are joined in the form of strips.
The two coils have high mutual inductance. When an alternating
current passes through the primary coil, it creates a varying magnetic
flux. As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change in
magnetic flux induces an EMF (electromotive force) in the secondary
coil, which is linked to the core having a primary coil. This is mutual
induction.

Overall, a transformer carries out the following operations:

1. Transfer of electrical energy from one circuit to another

2. Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
3. Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
4. Two circuits are linked with mutual induction

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
The figure shows the formation of magnetic flux lines around a
current-carrying wire. The normal of the plane containing the flux
lines is parallel to the normal of a cross-section of a wire.

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
The figure shows the formation of varying magnetic flux lines around
a wire wound. The interesting part is that the reverse is also true; when
a magnetic flux line fluctuates around a piece of wire, a current will be
induced in it. This was what Michael Faraday found in 1831, which is
the fundamental working principle of electric generators, as well as
transformers.

Parts of a Single-phase Transformer

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
The major parts of a single-phase transformer consist of

1. Core

The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It also

provides a low reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux. The
winding is wound on the core, as shown in the picture. It is made up
of a laminated soft iron core in order to reduce the losses in a
transformer. The factors, such as operating voltage, current, power,
etc., decide core composition. The core diameter is directly
proportional to copper losses and inversely proportional to iron losses.

2. Windings

Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer
core. Copper wires are used due to the following:

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
  The high conductivity of copper minimises the loss in a
transformer because when the conductivity increases, resistance
to current flow decreases.
 The high ductility of copper is the property of metals that allows
it to be made into very thin wires.

There are mainly two types of windings: primary windings and

secondary windings.

 Primary winding: The set of turns of windings to which the

supply current is fed.
 Secondary winding: The set of turns of winding from which
output is taken.

The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other
using insulation coating agents.

3. Insulation Agents

Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from

each other and to avoid short circuits. This facilitates mutual
induction. Insulation agents have an influence on the durability and
stability of a transformer.

The following are used as insulation mediums in a transformer:

 Insulating oil
 Insulating tape
 Insulating paper
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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
  Wood-based lamination

Ideal Transformer

The ideal transformer has no losses. There is no magnetic leakage

flux, ohmic resistance in its windings and no iron loss in the core.

EMF Equation of Transformer

N1 – Number of turns in the primary

N2 – Number of turns in the secondary

Φm – Maximum flux in the weber (Wb)

T – Time period. It is the time taken for 1 cycle.

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
The flux formed is a sinusoidal wave. It rises to a maximum value of
Φm and decreases to a negative maximum of Φm. So, flux reaches a
maximum in one-quarter of a cycle. The time taken is equal to T/4.

Average rate of change of flux = Φm/(T/4) = 4fΦm

Where, f = frequency

T = 1/f

Induced EMF per turn = Rate of change of flux per turn

Form factor = RMS value / average value

RMS value = 1.11 (4fΦm) = 4.44 fΦm [form factor of a sine wave is
1.11]

RMS value of EMF induced in winding = RMS value of EMF per

turn x No. of turns

Primary Winding
RMS value of induced EMF = E1 = 4.44 fΦm * N1

Secondary Winding
RMS value of induced EMF = E2 = 4.44 fΦm * N2

This is the EMF equation of the transformer.

For an ideal transformer at no load condition,

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
E1 = Supply voltage on the primary winding

E2 = Terminal voltage (theoretical or calculated) on the secondary

winding

Vector diagram of single phase transformer

The no load vector diagram of single phase transformer is shown below

IM

V1 E1 E2

No load vector diagram of transformer

Here, V1 is the applied voltage. Since the primary circuit is closed where voltage
V1 is applied. The secondary is unloaded. A small primary current will flow
which is called no load current I0 which is almost equal to magnetizing current
IM. Since the resistance of the primary circuit is negligible, the phase difference
between V1 and IM will around 90 and the current will lagging. This current IM
produces magnetic flux  which is directly proportional to IM. Therefore, they
are in same phase. Now, the flux  links both primary and secondary windings
N1 and N2 produces induced voltages E1 and E2 respectively. As the induced
voltage always lags behind the flux by 90, so they are at the right side of flux .
The magnitudes of E1 and E2 depend on their respective turns. Considering
resistive drop is almost zero at the primary side, the opposing factor for primary
current is only the induced voltage E1. Therefore, we can have,

V1 = - E1

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
When load is connected at the secondary side of the transformer, the load
consumes power. The energy comes from the supply at the primary side. Initially,
at no load, the current at the primary side was I0. However, as the load connected,
the secondary side is closed and a current I2 will start flowing there. Since the
energy comes from primary side, the primary current will also increase. Let the
current increase at the primary side is I2. As we know, in the transformer,
Primary Amp-turns = Secondary Amp-turns
or, N1 I2 = N2 I2
𝑵
𝑰′𝟐 = 𝑵𝟐 𝑰𝟐
𝟏

Remember that I2 will lag behind the secondary voltage V2 by less than 90
(consider this angle is ) depending on load and I2 will also lag behind the
supply voltage by the same margin that means by the angle , because both the
currents will be in line. The full load vector diagram of single phase
transformer is shown below


I1

I2  I0
V1 E1 E2

I2

Full load vector diagram of single phase transformer

The increased current I2 at the primary will add as vectors to get final primary
current I1 as shown in the above figure.
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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
 Equivalent circuit of single phase transformer
What is the Equivalent Circuit of Transformer?

An equivalent circuit of a transformer is a graphical representation of a

transformer circuit in which the resistance and leakage reactance are imagined to
be external to the winding. The exact equivalent circuit of a transformer can be
referred to as the primary or secondary side.

Equivalent Resistance

In a practical transformer, we need to consider winding resistance.

Where,

 R1 = Primary winding resistance

 R2 = Secondary winding resistance

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
Examples 1: A 230/110 V single-phase transformer has a core loss of 100 W.
If the input under no-load condition is 400 VA, find core loss current,
magnetizing current and no-load power factor angle.

Solution
No- load current V1I0 = 400 VA, 𝐼0 = 400/230 = 𝟏.𝟕𝟑𝟗 𝐀
Core loss current 𝐼𝑤 = P0/V1 = 100/230 = 𝟎.𝟒𝟑𝟒𝟖 𝐀
Magnetizing current 𝐈𝐌 = √𝐈𝟎𝟐 − 𝐈𝐖
𝟐
= √𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟗𝟐 −. 𝟒𝟑𝟒𝟖𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖𝟒𝐀
𝐈𝐖 .𝟒𝟑𝟒𝟖
No-load power factor, 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉𝟎 = = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝐥𝐚𝐠
𝐈𝟎 = 𝟏.𝟕𝟑𝟗
No-load power factor angle cos-1 0.25 =75.52

Example 2: At open circuit, transformer of 10 kVA, 500/250 V, 50 Hz draws

a power of 167 watt at 0.745 A, 500 V. Determine the magnetizing current,
R0 current, no-load power factor, hysteresis angle of advance, equivalent
resistance and reactance of exciting circuit referred to primary side.

Solution
𝑉1 = 500𝑉 , 𝐼0 =0.745𝐴, 𝑃0 =167𝑊

Core loss current 𝐼𝑤 = P0 / V1 = 167/500 = 𝟎.334𝐀

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
Magnetizing current 𝑰𝑴 = √𝑰𝟐𝟎 − 𝑰𝟐𝑾 = √𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟒𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑨
𝑰𝑾 .𝟑𝟑𝟒
No-load power factor, 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟎 = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟖 𝒍𝒂𝒈
𝑰𝟎 = 𝟎.𝟕𝟒𝟓
No-load power factor angle cos-1 0.448 =75.52

𝑽𝟏 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑹𝟎 = = = 𝟏𝟒𝟗𝟕 
𝑰𝒘 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟒

𝑽𝟏 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑿𝟎 = = = 𝟕𝟓𝟎 
𝑰𝑴 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔

Transformer on load
Let the ratio primary to secondary turns is N1/N2 = a

Here, E1/E2 = N1/N2 = I2/I1 = a

For the secondary circuit,

E2 = I2 ( R2 + jX2 ) + V2

or, E1/a = aI1( R2 + jX2 ) + V2

or, E1 = a2 I1( r2 + jx2 ) + aV2

or, E1 = I1(a2 R2 + ja2 X2 ) + aV2

The no-load current I0 is very small compared to load current. By

neglecting the magnetizing current I0, the above circuit becomes

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
 I1 I1
R1 X1 a2R2 a2X2
V1
E1 = aE2 aV2

Fig. Transformer equivalent circuit referred to primary

Let R1,eq = R1 + a2R2 and X1,eq = X1 + a2X2 .

I1

R1,eq X1,eq
V1
aV2

Fig. Transformer equivalent circuit referred to primary

Example: The equivalent circuit impedance of a 20 kVA, 8000/240 V , 60 Hz transformers

are to be determined. The open circuit test and short circuit test were performed on the
primary side of the transformer, and the following data were taken:

Open-circuit test(on primary) Short-circuit test(on primary)

VOC = 8000 V VSC = 489 V

IOC = 0.214 A ISC = 2.5 A

POC = 400 W PSC = 240 W

Find the impedance of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary circuit, and
sketch the circuit.

Transformer Voltage Regulation

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
Transformer voltage regulation is the ratio or percentage value by which a
transformers output terminal voltage varies either up or down from its no-load
value as a result of variations in the connected load current

A transformers voltage regulation change between its secondary terminal voltage

from a no-load condition when IL = 0, (open circuit) to a fully-loaded condition
when IL = IMAX (maximum current) for a constant primary voltage is given as:

Open and short circuit tests are performed on a transformer to determine the:

1. Equivalent circuit of transformer

2. Voltage regulation of transformer
3. Efficiency of transformer

To discuss transformer theory accurately, we must take into account some losses
associated with transformers. Generally, these losses can be divided into two
categories: magnetic, or core losses, and I2R, or copper loss. The core losses are
relatively constant, resulting from the magnetic circuit that does not change much
as transformer current changes. Currents cause the I2R, or copper loss, and
because currents change, so do the coil losses.

All the losses associated with the core of the transformer are magnetic in nature
and are relatively constant. The effect of hysteresis and eddy currents do not
change much because of current flow; they result from core material and design.

Two tests (open-circuit and short-circuit) are performed to determine core and
copper losses in the transformer. These losses are further used to compute the
transformer’s efficiency.

Output Power
Efficiency = × 100%
Input Power

Open-Circuit Test

Figure shows the circuit for the transformer open-circuit test. The alternating
input voltage is set to the normal primary level for the transformer, and the
voltage at the open-circuited output terminals is monitored on a voltmeter, as
illustrated. The wattmeter measures the input power, and the ammeter measures
the primary current. In this case, the input voltage can be taken as the
transformer's primary voltage; thus, the ratio of the voltmeter readings gives the
turns ratio.

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
 𝑬 𝑷 𝑵𝑷
=
𝑬 𝑺 𝑵𝑺

Figure 1(a). A transformer open-circuit test is performed by measuring

the (no-load) secondary voltage, the primary current, and the input
voltage and power.

With a very small primary current, and near-zero secondary current (i.e., the
voltmeter current), the copper loss in the windings can be assumed negligible.
The input power measured on the wattmeter is then the total transformer core
losses, and the ammeter indicates the no-load primary current (Io) (see Figure
1(b)). From the measured values of input voltage, current, and power, the
components of the no-load equivalent circuit can be determined.

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
 Figure 1(b). Secondary components referred to the primary.

Example 1

An open-circuit test on a transformer produced the following

measurements: EP=115 V, ES=57.5 V, P =9.5 W, and Io=180 mA. Determine
the transformer turns ratio and the values of Ro and Xo.

Solution:

𝑬𝑷 𝑵𝑷 𝟏𝟏𝟓
= = =𝟐
𝑬𝑺 𝑵𝑺 𝟓𝟕. 𝟓

P.f. = cos = POC / (VOC IOC ) = 9.5/(115 .18) = 0.4589 lagging

The excitation admittance YE = (IOC / VOC ) - cos-1(p.f.) = 1/R0 -j 1/Xm

Short-Circuit Test
The transformer short-circuit test is performed with the secondary terminals
short-circuited, as illustrated in Figure 2(a). Note that the primary voltage (EP) is
measured right at the transformer primary terminals. The input voltage is
increased from zero until the ammeter in the primary circuit indicates normal full-
load primary current. When this occurs, the normal full-load secondary current is
circulating in the secondary winding. Because the secondary terminals are short-
circuited, the input voltage required to produce full-load primary and secondary
currents is around 3% of the normal input voltage level. With such a low input
voltage level, the core losses are so small that they can be neglected. However,
the windings are carrying normal full-load current, and so the input is supplying
the normal full-load copper losses.

24 | P a g e
Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
Figure 2(a). To perform a transformer short-circuit test, the
secondary is shorted, and the primary current is adjusted to the
normal full-load level. The primary voltage and input power are
measured.

The output power (to the short-circuit) is zero, so the wattmeter measuring true input power
indicates the full-load copper losses. The product of the ammeter and voltmeter readings gives
the apparent input power. From these quantities, calculations may be made of the resistive and
reactive components of the full-load equivalent circuit referred to the primary (see Figure 2(b)).

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
Figure 2(b). Equivalent Transformer Circuit simplified by
neglecting Ro and Xo.

Example 2

Determine Re and Xe for the transformer in Example 1 when the following measurements were
made on a short-circuit test: EP(SC) =5.5 V, IP=1 A, and P=5.25 W.

Solution

Re=P/ IP2 =5.25 / 12 =5.25Ω

Ze = EP/Ip = 5.5 Ω

Xe = (5.52 – 5.252 )1/2 = 2.68751/2 = 1.64 Ω

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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University
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Prof. Dr. Mirza Golam Rabbani
Dept. of EEE, Uttara University