History Study Guide

Section 1: Writing Styles

Each civilization developed unique forms of writing to record history, laws, and religion.

Mesopotamian Writing

•Cuneiform – the world’s first writing system, developed by the Sumerians.

•Written on clay tablets using a reed stylus.

•Used for record-keeping, trade, laws, and literature (e.g., The Epic of Gilgamesh).

Egyptian Writing

•Hieroglyphics – picture-based writing system used for religious and official inscriptions.

•Written on papyrus scrolls, tombs, and temple walls.

•Hieratic script – a simplified version for everyday writing.

Indian Writing

•Indus Script – the writing system of the Indus Valley Civilization (undeciphered).

•Later, Sanskrit became the sacred language of Hindu religious texts (Vedas).

Section 2: City-States & Major Cities

Ancient civilizations were centered around important cities that served as political, religious, and trade hubs.

Mesopotamian City-States

•Ur, Uruk, Babylon, Nineveh.

•Each city-state had its own ruler, laws, and patron deity.

•Often engaged in wars for land and water.

Egyptian Cities
•Memphis, Thebes, Alexandria.

•Egypt was a unified kingdom under Pharaoh rule rather than divided city-states.

Indian Cities

•Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro – two major planned cities of the Indus Valley Civilization.

•Featured grid-like streets, drainage systems, and advanced architecture.

Section 3: Religions
Religion played a major role in shaping laws, governance, and daily life.

Mesopotamian Religion

•Polytheistic – worshipped many gods who controlled nature and human fate.

•Major gods:

•Anu (sky god)

•Enlil (god of air and storms)

•Ishtar (goddess of love and war)

•Ziggurats (step temples) were built to honor the gods.

Egyptian Religion

•Polytheistic – believed in gods who ruled over life and death.

•Major gods:

•Ra (sun god, creator of life)

•Osiris (god of the afterlife)

•Isis (goddess of magic and motherhood)

•Belief in the afterlife, leading to the practice of mummification.

Indian Religion
•Hinduism – based on reincarnation, karma, and dharma (duty).

•Buddhism – founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), focusing on enlightenment and rejecting the caste
system.

•Worship of Vedic gods such as Indra (warrior god) and Agni (fire god).

Section 4: Laws & Legal Systems

Each civilization had its own laws to maintain order and punishments for crimes.

Mesopotamian Laws

•Code of Hammurabi (1754 BCE) – one of the world’s first written law codes.

•Based on the principle “an eye for an eye” (Lex Talionis).

•Laws covered trade, marriage, theft, slavery, and punishments.

Egyptian Laws

•No written law code like Mesopotamia.

•Laws were based on religion and the Pharaoh’s decisions.

•Pharaoh was the supreme judge and ruler.

Indian Laws

•Manusmriti – ancient Hindu law code based on dharma (duty) and caste roles.

•Caste system laws determined a person’s rights, duties, and punishments.

Section 5: Social Structure & Social Mobility

Social class determined a person’s status, job, and rights. Some civilizations allowed mobility, while others had a
fixed system.

Mesopotamian Social Structure

[Link] (chosen by gods)

[Link] (connected people to gods)

[Link] & Artisans (business class)

[Link] & Laborers (majority of the population)

[Link] (prisoners of war or debt slaves)

•Limited social mobility – most people remained in their class.

Egyptian Social Structure

[Link] (god-king)

[Link] & Nobles (controlled temples and land)

[Link] & Government Officials (literate and powerful)

[Link] & Artisans (middle class)

[Link] & Laborers (majority of the population)

[Link] (prisoners of war)

•More mobility than Mesopotamia – scribes and skilled artisans could move up in status.

Indian Social Structure (Caste System)

[Link] (priests & scholars)

[Link] (warriors & rulers)

[Link] (merchants & landowners)

[Link] (laborers & servants)

[Link] (Dalits) (outcasts, lowest status)

•No social mobility – people were born into a caste and remained there for life.

Section 6: Comparison of Civilizations

Each civilization had unique features, but they also shared similarities. Below is a comparison of their writing
styles, city-states, religions, laws, and social structures.

Writing Styles:
•Mesopotamia – Used Cuneiform, the world’s first writing system, written on clay tablets with a reed stylus.

•Egypt – Used Hieroglyphics, a picture-based writing system, mainly on papyrus, tombs, and temple walls.

•India – Used Indus Script (undeciphered), and later Sanskrit became the language of Hindu religious texts.

City-States & Major Cities:

•Mesopotamia – Had independent city-states such as Ur, Uruk, Babylon, and Nineveh, each ruled by its own king.

•Egypt – Unlike Mesopotamia, Egypt was a unified kingdom, with major cities such as Memphis, Thebes, and
Alexandria.

•India – The Indus Valley Civilization had well-planned cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, featuring advanced
drainage systems.

Religion:

•Mesopotamia – Polytheistic, believing in many gods who controlled nature and human fate. Worshiped gods such
as Anu (sky god) and Ishtar (goddess of love and war). Built ziggurats for worship.

•Egypt – Polytheistic, focusing on the afterlife and gods like Ra (sun god) and Osiris (god of the underworld).
Practiced mummification to preserve bodies.

•India – Early Hinduism emerged, focusing on reincarnation, karma, and dharma (duty). Later, Buddhism, founded
by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), spread throughout India and Asia.

Laws:

•Mesopotamia – Had the Code of Hammurabi, one of the first written law codes (1754 BCE), based on strict
justice (“an eye for an eye”).

•Egypt – Had no single written law code. Instead, laws were based on religion and the Pharaoh’s authority.

•India – Laws were based on Manusmriti, an ancient Hindu law code that emphasized caste duties and moral
responsibility (dharma).

Social Structure & Social Mobility:

•Mesopotamia – Rigid hierarchy with little mobility: King → Priests → Merchants → Farmers → Slaves. Some
wealthy merchants could rise in status.
•Egypt – More social mobility than Mesopotamia. The hierarchy was: Pharaoh → Nobles → Scribes → Merchants
→ Farmers → Slaves. Scribes and skilled workers could move up.

•India – Strict Caste System: Brahmins (priests) → Kshatriyas (warriors) → Vaishyas (merchants) → Shudras
(laborers) → Untouchables (outcasts). No social mobility—people were born into their caste and stayed in it for
life.

Section 7: Study Tips

•Know how to compare civilizations.

•Example: How did religion influence law in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India?

•Understand cause and effect.

•Example: How did geography impact the economy and trade of each civilization?

•Memorize key facts using acronyms or flashcards.