World History to 1500

In The Beginning
• Pre History – History
- artifacts and writing
• Classification Methods
- animal, plant, etc.
- implements were sometimes used to describe
periods … stone age, bronze age, iron age
• Human Classification (homo habilis, homo
erectus, homo sapien)
• Paleolithic Society (250,000 – 9000 BCE)
- Foragers (hunters and gathers), small
nomadic groups (family – kinships), early
Stone Age, interesting approach to
hunting (stampede over a cliff – fire), cave
paintings, animistic beliefs, etc.
• Agricultural Revolution (bridges Paleolithic
& Neolithic Periods)
 - In some instances inspired by circumstance
- In other instances it was the result of evolved
thinking and reasoning
- Ushered in the Neolithic Period
• Neolithic Period (begins in 9000 BCE)
- More settles society
- Population growth
- More developed governance
- Improved communication (early forms of
language – pictures & symbols)
- Domesticated plants & animals
- Early trading activity (commerce & culture)
- Social hierarchies & more defined
relationships along gender lines
- By 3000 BCE more change was expressing
itself
. villages grew into cities
. improvements in both tools and weapons
. examples of other changes – boats
. government developed taxing measures &
established a military
. more sophisticated language (writing began
to appear in some places) – written
language was very limited and used for
specific purposes (record important events)
 . writing has been found on rocks, bones,
papyrus sheets (Egypt), bamboo & silk
(China)
- Another measure of increasing human
sophistication was the evolution of cities
. more complex environments requiring more
complex systems & structures to manage
the population & the new environment
. cities required laws, codes of conduct, and
more integrated thinking to understand and
explain the changing world
. this new order is sometimes referred to as
‘civilization’
- The term that came to be used to
characterize this new arrangement and more
complex system (laws, codes, relationships,
 mechanisms, etc.) was ‘the State’
- This transition process was plainly evident
through the 4th & 3rd millennium BCE
- Locations where this change first became
evident – Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, &
China
Human Migration Patterns
Continential Drift
• MESOPOTAMIA
- Earliest States (Tigris-Euphrates Rivers) and
throughout the Fertile Crescent
- Geography favored the Northern part of
Mesopotamia for initial settlement
- Eventually, settlement, agricultural techniques,
migrated to the south (Sumer, Uruk – 1st city)
- Religious Leaders – the most influential
group
- Other cities evolved and bonded around
common needs (irrigation needs, trade, etc.)
- Religious leaders replaced by Kings (although
priests and the religious community remained
powerful)
- Social strata began to evolve (nobility,
religious, clients, slaves) .. gender difference
- Sumerian society developed
. language (cuneiform)
. system of mathematics (units of 60,10, 6)
. oral tradition was still very strong
- Sumerian society began to face challenges
from outsiders by 2300BCE
- Greatest challenge was from a leader by the
name of Sargon (he began to conquer the
Sumerian States), N-S Mesopotamia was
brought under a single ruler, Mesopotamia’s
boarders were expanded (into the southern
region of the Fertile Crescent to the Indus
River region in India)
- Sargon’s Dynasty lasted about 150 years
before it went into decline (Dynastic Cycle)
- Various city-states now began to compete
against each other for control of the trade
network, land, etc.
- Eventually, the city of Babylon emerged as
the most powerful – in large part because
of it’s strong leader – Hammurabi
- He convinced the population that his success
was the will of the gods – and that the god
who has anointed him was the king of all the
gods in Mesopotamia
- Babylon became a powerful nation under
Hammurabi
- Other than his success (military, political, &
religious), the greatest contribution
Hammurabi made to history was the creation
of his Code of Laws
- They defined fairness, justice, and equal
treatment
. included capital and corporal punishment
. punishment must fit the crime (an eye for
an eye)
. civic responsibility
. fair trade practice
. quality of goods
. support for the principles of marriage
. fair inheritance
MESOPOTAMIA and the FERTILE
CRESCENT
Ancient Egypt
• EGYPT
- Settled along the Nile River (water source
for irrigation, linked N-S Egypt, helped
facilitate trade)
- Divided into 3 periods (Old Kingdom
2600 BCE – 2100 BCE, Middle Kingdom
2100 BCE – 1600 BCE, New Kingdom
1600 BCE – 1000 BCE
• King was viewed as having god-like power over
the Nile and in other ways (later the title would
be changed to Pharaoh). Egyptian leaders were
to be revered in life and after life – elaborate
palaces and pyramids
- Highest Egyptian god ( Ra, Amon, Amon-Ra)
- Although they had a form of written language
(hieroglyphics and hieratic), much of what we
know about the Egyptians we learned from
 their burial tombs
- Important written work: Book of the Dead
. mummification process, two additional gods
(Osiris & Isis, something about Egyptian
society)
• Importance of Nile to Egyptian society
- Important social activity revolved about activity
related to the river (flooding)
 - Specific work assignments revolved around
the activity of the river
. planting, harvest, work away from the fields,
etc.
• Egyptian society (patriarchal, arranged
marriages, polytheistic, mystical, diverse)
• Egypt on the crossroads – trade center,
migration patterns
• Populations that would influence Egypt
(Hyksos-introduced Bronze weapons & tools,
horse drawn chariots, composite bow, etc.) –
the group will be driven out, but their
contributions will not and as their exit marks the
beginning of the New Kingdom period
- This period in Egyptian history corresponds
the rise of the Babylonian Empire in
Mesopotamia (Hammurabi) – also, it
 corresponds with the rise and expansion of
another Kingdom to the north (in Anatolia) –
Hittites
• Egyptian interaction with the Hittites will signal
the beginning of the Bronze Age and the early
years of Egypt’s decline
• As Egypt declines other groups will emerge to
fill the leadership void in and around the Nile
River region (Nubia, Kush, Phoenicians)
- Nubia (facilitated trade with the sub-Saharan
region, Kush (introduced the Iron Age into the
region and suppressed much of the instability,
Phoenicians (opened the entire region to an
extensive trade network and greatly improved
upon the business of trading (ship
construction, expanded grape (wine)
production, served as the major distribution
 force in the Mediterranean & Middle East). In
addition, the Phoenicians are credited with
inventing a phonetic system of writing and
introduced the alphabet – the foundation of
many modern day languages including English
• Egyptian Civilization’s contribution to World
Civilizations (writing, a form of paper-pen-ink,
literature, calendar, math/architecture, medical
science, sculpture, deities & mythology,
philosophy, postal service, agriculture &
irrigation, trade network, craftsmanship, etc.
Pictures from Ancient Egypt
Pictures from Ancient Egypt
Pictures from Ancient Egypt
Egyptian Society
• Other populations that would emerge in the
Fertile Crescent Region and influence World
History
- Hebrews, Assyrians, & the Persians
• Hebrews (Jews)
- Relatively minor player in the region when
compared to Egypt or Babylonia
- However, they will hold an idea that will
change the course of history
. the idea – monotheism
. Abrahamic Religions: Judaism, Christianity,
Islam
. brief background (Abraham, Moses, Exodus,
Canaan, Jerusalem, Temple of Jerusalem,
Ark of the Covenant, Saul (Paul), David,
Solomon, Egyptian & Babylonian captivity,
 Torah, Old Testament, Jewish Diaspora)
• Assyrians
- From northern Mesopotamia
- Advanced the art of warfare (use of
technology and engineering in warfare)
- Examples: battering ram, catapult, excavation
teams, pontoons, etc.
• Persians
- Located in modern day Iran
- Leaders: Cyrus, Darius, Xerxes
- Strong in war and in governance (Persian
Empire spread from western India –
throughout the Fertile Crescent including
much of Egypt – to the eastern shore of
Greece)
- Comment on Zoroasterianism (Ahuramazda
& Angra Mainyu)
INDIA
• INDIA (the Asian sub-continent)
-The challenges and the processes of
advancing civilization were the same in India
as they were in Mesopotamia & Egypt (food
production, settled populations evolving into
cities, more sophisticated governments, etc.)
- Settled along rivers (Indus River & Ganges
River) – climate and geography were factors
 as well
- The earliest civilization in India (Harappan)
wasn’t know until the early 20th century –
several cities found in NW India & Pakistan –
their language is still a mystery – larger than
ancient Sumer & Egypt (however, there was
contact among these three societies) - grain
- Characteristics – large brick structures,
elaborate sewer system, public baths,
warehouses, docks/port facilities – no large
tombs (pyramids)
- Around 2000 BCE the Harappan society
disappeared – (invasion by outsiders?,
natural disasters – earthquake, drought,
disease ?)
• Aryans (1500 – 500 BCE) – most likely migrated
out of the mid-east (where prior to that ?)
- Characteristics – series of independent tribes,
lacked cohesion or any central governance,
(however, they had a common origin –
language, culture, pol. structure, etc.)
- Like other ancient societies religion was
 important (priests referred to as Brahmins)
- Laid the foundation of what we know as
Hinduism and is given credit for the idea of
a “caste system”
. Vedas (Rig Veda) . Samsara
. Upanishads . Moksha
. Karma
• Cities began to appear at the tail end of the
Aryan civilization – this time frame (6th century
BCE – corresponds with a time in history when
inquiry and deep thinking in Europe, the
Mediterranean, and China was very apparent)
- India had its share of philosophers,
intellectuals, and mystical thinkers
• Three prominent religions and/or social
philosophies are related to India
- Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism
• JAINISM (Mahavira) – Asceticism
- Basic principles (non-violence – ahisma,
open-mindedness, non-attachment)
- Rejected the Caste System & animal
sacrifice
• BUDDHISM (Siddhartha Gautama)
- Buddha (the enlightened one)
- Basic principles (4 Noble Truths, Eight-fold
Path)
- Other terms: sutras, Nirvana, dharma
• Hinduism (greatly influenced by the Brahamic
tradition of the Aryans
- Importance of the Bhagavad Gita
 - Hindu gods: 3 important ones – Shiva, Vishnu
(Avatars), & Brahman
- Generally, was a reaction to the rise of
Jainism & Buddhism
• Mauryan Civilization (513-185BCE)
- Previous civilizations: (Harappan --3000-
1500BCE & Aryan – 1500-500BCE)
- Mauryan Civilization was contested &
 influenced by Persian & Greek Empires
. Persia had expanded to Indus River valley
the time the Aryan society was in a state of
decline and then the Persians were
challenged by the Greeks (Alex the Great)
in 322BCE
• From this chaos a leader emerges
- Chandragupta (began to consolidate the
 various regions in India (this would be the
foundation for the Mauryan Empire)
- Ashoka (grandson of Chandragupta)
- The leaders borrowed ideas from both (Persia
& Greece) to achieve their success
. political structure and leadership, coin
money, establish an official written
language, create a standing army, effective
 use of propaganda, make allies against
common enemies, abundance of caution,
etc.
• Religions of the Empire ( Jainism & Buddhism)
- Ashoka had seized power and leadership
through savage warfare – came to reject all
that and endorsed India’s principle of
“ahisma”
• Mauryan Civilization – achievements: united
almost all of India, promoted religious toleration,
supported efficient governments, promoted
humane treatment to subjects, developed an
elaborate road system, promoted standardized
laws and social principles throughout India,
established trade with the west, etc.
• Mauryan Civilization in decline – begins with
the death of Ashoka (232BCE)
- The Empire enters a period of slow, but steady
decline
- Several outside groups chip away at the unity
created by Mauryan leaders
- Eventually, India begins to sub-divide
CHINA
• Brief Background of China
- Compared to other areas of study
- Influence of its geography on its history
• Dynastic Periods (Dynastic Cycle)
- Shang
- Zhou (Joe)
- Warring Period
- Qin (Chin)
• Shang Dynasty (1500-1050 BCE)
- Bronze Age (Anyang)
. written language (logographic),
domesticated animals, metal works,
class structure, centralized govt.,
military power, paternalistic society,
settled communities
 - Religious life
. practiced Divination, sacrifice, belief
in the afterlife
• Zhou Dynasty (1050-400 BCE)
- The Book of Documents (political thoughts)
. China – center of the known world
. introduced new religious thought
. (tied religion and politics together)
 . Son of Heaven – Mandate of Heaven
- Decentralized government
. provinces and vassal states
- Hierarchy in social order
- Book of Songs (reflection on Zhou
life and society)
. distrust of women
. bronze to iron
• The Hundred Schools of Though Period
- Late Zhou through Qin Dynasty (includes the
Warring States Period)
. Confucius 551-479 BCE (Confucianism)
. Lao-tzu 6th century BCE (Taoism)
. Han Feizi 280-233 BCE (Legalism)
• Confucianism
- Rejected the need for meditation,
metaphysical aspects of religion, the
need for deities
- Focus on ethics, morals, virtuous acts
(ren-kindness, li-manners, relationships)
. 5 relationships - greatest virtue (humanity)
. ancestor veneration & filial piety
5 Relationships in Confucianism
• Taoism (Daoism) … “the Way”
- In harmony with nature
- Simplicity
- Self-sufficient communities
- No government
- Practice the action of “non-action”
- Reaction against both Confucianism &
Legalism
 YIN & YANG
“Nature does not hurry, yet everything is accomplished”
• Legalism
- Strong Government
- Strict laws & harsh penalties
- Focus on strong military and govt. (powerful
& ruthless)
- Became the foundation of the Qin Dynasty
• Warring Period (475 BCE to 221 BCE)
Warring Period
• Qin Dynasty
- Society organized along Legalistic lines
. strong central government & governance
. people are inherently selfish &
self-serving
. society needs structure, guidance, etc.
. debate, opinion, are pointless (things
just are)
• Other thoughts and summaries
- Yin and Yang (maintaining balance and
harmony is essential) - limited intervention
- Relationships are important – virtuous
thought and actions are the natural
condition of man
- Society needs to be managed – law & order
- Qin Emperor referred to himself as the “First
Emperor”
 . he became obsessed with his security
and with obtaining immortality (several
attempts made to assassinate him)
. his tomb is protected by 1000’s of life-size
terra-cotta figures of horses and soldiers
• The rise of the Han Dynasty (Emperor Gaozu)
- Kept a strong centralized government, but
removed the harsh laws and taxes
- The government became less evasive
. relatively peaceful beginning, an
expanding population base, the
addition of new territories, and an expanded
trade network
. reasserted Confucian principles (replacing
legalistic views practiced by the Qin Dynasty)
QIN, HAN, SUI, & TANG
• Qin Highlights
- Unified China after the Warring Period,
supported the philosophy of Legalism, the
period is identified with the First Emperor,
major construction completed on the Great
Wall, expanded the boundaries of China, etc.
• Han Dynasty
- Replaced the Qin Dynasty ( maintained a
strong central government, but did not
continue with the Legalistic philosophy,
modified laws – reduced taxes (except for
merchants) – land grants, govt. began to
compete in the marketplace vs. merchants,
- Han leadership reintroduced Confucian
ideas and practices – reestablish the
scholar-official program – 1st comprehensive
history of China was written – China
introduced paper – trade was greatly
expanded (Silk Road)
- Great concern about the non-Chinese
populations to the North (Han leadership
 looks for allies and establishes an extensive
tributary system
- During this time China transitions from the
Bronze Age to the Iron Age
- Chinese society was largely paternalistic
- Population was mostly the peasant working
class
- Only one written language, Dynastic tradition
was very strong
• The Fall of the Han Dynasty
- Inexperienced leadership, introduction of
eunuchs into important positions, internal
revolt (China is divided – Age of Division)
- Southern China continued to be ruled by
Han Dynasty – Northern China was ruled
by non-Chinese nomads (Xiongnu)
• Another important factor evolves during this
same period – Spread of Buddhism out of India
- Buddhism spread by Ashoka (King)
- Mahayana Buddhism spread into East Asia
- Chinese interest in Buddhism
. reincarnation, karma, Nirvana, more equal,
syncretic religious practice
• Political Division (N & S) eventually resolved by the
SUI Dynasty in 581(military reunion)
- Greatest accomplishment of the SUI Dynasty
. construction of the Grand Canal – connecting
the Yellow River and the Yangzi River
. Relatively short reign (approx. 4 decades)
• Sui Dynasty replaced by the Tang Dynasty
- Expanded bounderies of China in the direction
of Turkey. Expanded the Scholar Bureaucrat
 program, created an efficient system of
government, expanded cultural life of
China, extensive contact with the outside
world, Buddhism expanded, Chinese
influence spread through the S E Asian region
(Korea, Japan, VietNam)
• The Tang Dynasty in decline
- An Lushan Rebellion, eunuch vs. scholar
conflict, powerful states were forming
• Religions of the Far East
- Confucianism ( relationships in life, love-
respect-consider others, mankind is basically
good, good people do good things, good
govt. will do good things, there is a natural
order to things, respect authority)
- Buddhism (suffering is a reality, suffering is
the result of holding on to things, individuals
will experience cycles of existence, Nirvana
-release- is the release from this cycle, the
path to Nirvana is the “middle way” (8 fold
path)
- Shinto (Emperor of Japan is a descendent of
the Sun God – Amaterasu, Kami are the
spirits of Japan’s religion, Shinto is the
National Religion, preserve and support
nature, celebrate life – no after-life, symbol
is the Torii Gate)
ANCIENT GREECE
• Importance of Greece
- Greece is to the Western World what China
is to the Eastern World
. philosophies, science, political systems,
literature & art, etc.
- Three periods in Greek History
. Helladic (Bronze Age – 3000 to 1200 BCE),
Hellenic (1200 to 338 BCE), Hellenistic
(338 to 30 BCE)
• Influence of geography – very fragmented
- Early Greek societies (Minoans – Crete) &
Mycenaean (mainland Greece) - rivers
• Greece enters the Dark Ages (the end of the
Bronze Age – 1100 to 800 BCE)
- Writings of Homer (Iliad & Odyssey)
- Formation of the Polis (the new Greek
political structure – the city-state)
• Hellenic Period (Dark Ages, Archaic Age, Classical
Period)
- Development of the Polis
. features of the Greek cities
(strong identity with the specific culture,
tradition, place, customs, etc., city
surrounded by fields, inside city –
acropolis, agora, usually protected by
a volunteer militia … Hoplites)
- Types of government (strong leader,
democracy, oligarchy)
- The period also saw the expansion of Greek
ideas, culture, and settlements
- Two particular Polis locations (Sparta &
Athens)
• Sparta
- Military culture
. training began at age 7, life long soldier,
retreat was not an option – “return from
battle carrying your shield or die in battle
and return being carried on your shield”,
etc.
• Athens
- Went a different way – democratic culture
- Took a while to get there Draco, Solon, Boule
& Ecclesia
• Other countries were also expanding and
developing during this period as well
-Persia & Macedonia
. Battle of Marathon, Battle of Thermopylae,
Battle of Salamis
• Greek Alliance ( Delian League – Athens &
Peloponnesian League – Sparta)
- Age of Pericles
• Greek Civil War
- Herodotus – historian
• The Macedonian Conquest
• The Classical Period of Greece (prior to the Macedonian
conquest) – 500-338 BCE
- Sometimes referred to as the Age of Pericles
. period of the Peloponnesian War
. also a period of great cultural achievement
(great theater and playwrights – Aeschylus,
Sophocles, Euripides) – examined issue like
power, relationships, dealing with personal
conflict
. also, a period of developing philosophic
traditions and ideas (questioned the use and
validity of myth, etc. in explaining the
universe) – Democritus (atomic theory),
Hippocrates (medicine), Sophists (art of
persuasive arguments), Socrates (Socratic
method), Plato (idealism), Aristotle
(knowledge comes from observation &
reason)
• Something about Greek society and family life
- Simple living accommodations, common foods
(grains, olives, figs, grapes, wheat, fish – the
Mediterranean Diet), assigned work duties for
men and women, slavery was wide-spread,
noticeable absence of women among the
poets, philosophers, etc., most women
confined to home and hearth, noncitizen
women had a different life
- Sexual relation were varied, a form of
prostitution was lawful, same-sex relations
were not uncommon and accepted (not
just in Sparta), male-male mentor
relationships – female-female relationships
(Sappho – female poet lived on the island
of Lesbos in the Aegean Sea)
• The end of the Classical Period and the Hellenic
Period (2nd period)
- The Macedonian Conquest
• The Hellenistic Period Begins (323-30 BCE)
- Philip II of Macedonia takes advantage of
the weakened condition in Greece – then
turns toward Persia
- Phillip is killed and Alexander (his son)
continues the campaign & conquest
• Alexander the Great seized Persian and Egypt
(city of Alexandria in Egypt is named after him)
- Continued his conquest eastward and
eventually crossing into India
. changed the nature of politics throughout
this entire region (Greece to India)
. eventually (after Alex’s death) the empire
began to disintegrate – empire subdivided
 . Hellenistic Kings tried to link political and
religious authority together, tried to
reproduce the cohesion of the Greek Polis
. there were notable differences
• Alexander the Great’s achievements
- Placed Greeks in many towns along his road
to conquest (founding many new towns)
- Greek culture and life was established
- Center of economic activity
- Greek law and institutions established
- Greek language was spoken
- Undertook an extensive system of road
building – greatly expanded trade throughout
- Built temples to the Greek Gods, but allowed
for local religions – syncretic religions
emerged
 - Philosophy and science continued to evolve
(epicureanism, stoicism, -- Euclid (math),
Archimedes (inventor using physics),
Eratosthenes (science & astronomy),
advances in medicine
• By 30 BCE the Empire began to be
be destabilized as the Romans began
their expansion directly into areas previously
part of the Greek world
ANCIENT ROME
ITALY
• Overview
- Limited Greek contact, but great Greek
influence
- Roman history is divided into three periods
. monarchical period (753-509 BCE)
. traditional period (509-27 BCE)
. empirical period (27 BCE – 476 CE)
• Consolidation of power
- In Italy
- Through the western Mediterranean
- Into lands previously under the control
of Greek/Macedonian armies
• Settlements in Italy (people and places)
- Magna Greece (Greater Greece)
- Etruscans
- Italian States
• Early Rome and its mythological foundation
- Romulus and Remus
. the city of Rome is established
. the Roman Senate is formed (Council of
advisors)
. Rome begins to expand (ruled by Kings -
the last set were thought to have been
Etruscans)
 - City of Rome was transformed under the
Etruscans
. language, architecture, paved roads,
fashion (toga), gladiator contests
• Rome transitions for Monarchy to a Republic
- Story that is told (Lucretia)
- The conquest of Italy
. Roman view of conquest
• The Roman State – Senatus Populusque
Romanus – “SPQR”
- Groups (social divisions) in Rome
patrician & plebeians
- Roman law is established
. Civil law, Foreign Affairs law, Natural law
• Conflict between patrician & plebeians
- Struggle of the Orders
• Roman Expansion Beyond Italy
- Carthage and the beginning of the Punic
Wars
- A word about Carthage
. founded by the Phoenicians
. developed an extensive trading network
throughout the Mediterranean
. Rome and Carthage had conflicting
interests
• Rome and Carthage engaged in a series of
wars to gain control of the western
Mediterranean
- Punic Wars (3)
. recognize Hannibal (Carthaginian
general – war elephants)
. Rome wins and controls the Mediterranean
. Rome turns East toward land claimed by
Greece
• Roman conquest and the expansion of her
Empire
- A word about Roman society
- Rome’s success was not without some
trouble
. Rome’s soldiers lost their land/farms
. large homeless and unemployment
problem
- Political disruption
. the Roman Senate begins to lose some of
its power (appts. a “Dictator”)
. the First Triumvirate is formed (Crassus,
Pompey, and Julius Caesar) – civil war
breaks out (Caesar is supported by
Cleopatra)
• Caesar’s authority over the rule of Rome
expands (very popular among most, but not all)
- 44 BCE Caesar is assassinated
- Another civil war begins
. the Second Triumvirate is established
(Octavian, Marc Anthony, and Lepidus)
. Octavian emerges victorious and the
period of Civil Wars end in Rome (27 BCE)
• Octavian is given the name/title of Augustus (the
Revered One)
- This marks the end of the Roman Republic
and the beginning of the Roman Empire
• Virgil – the AENEID
• Augustus and the Pax Romana (Roman Peace)
- 27 BCE – 180 CE
- Overall, great progress in the development
and expansion of the Roman Empire
• Achievements in Rome during the Pax Romana
- Engineering (roads, tunnels, harbors,
aquaducts, etc.)
- Architecture
- Law (laws of the 12 tablets – ‘face your
accuser, innocent until proven guilty, etc.)
- Science & Medicine, Trade & Commerce,
Literature & Culture
. boundaries expanded, trade expanded, Rome
grew to become one of the largest cities in the
world, great military victories, over 50,000
miles of roads (all roads lead to Rome),
professional government officials, Roman
cities developed through the Empire, etc.
. other, not so impressive elements within the
Empire (examples of some ineffective
Examples of Ineffective (STRANGE)
Roman Emperors
• Tiberius
• Septimus Seveus
• Caligula
• Elogabalus
• Nero
 leaders, resistance to Roman rule, not
everyone participated in the wealth of the
Roman Empire)
• The rise of Christianity
- Trouble in Judaeh (Jewish community)
. more extreme groups encouraged armed
rebellion against the Romans (Zelots)
. believed a Messiah would come to free
them from the Romans
. believed the Roman religion was a
form of pagan worship
. Jesus of Nazareth is born
. early history of Christian movement
(considered a sect of Judiasm, teachings
began to draw distinction between
Judahism & Roman religions)
• Early reaction to Christian movement in Rome
- fringe group, growing concern about the
following Christ was developing, concern that
violence might break out in Jerusalem during
the Jewish recognition of the Passover &
Jesus was going to attend
- Pontius Pilate considered Christ to be the
spark to trigger an uprising and violence –
condemned Christ to death
 - Christ – Last Supper, crucifixion, resurrection
• Importance of St. Paul and the Apostles
(M, M, L, & J)
• Roman Reaction to this growing religious
movement
- varied from Emperor to Emperor
- acceptance of Christianity began to spread
• Back to Roman Empire after the Pax Romana
- “crisis of the 3rd century”
. disloyalty among military commanders,
internal chaos, external invasions, loss of
trade, agriculture tanked, etc.
- Order restored by the end of the 3rd century
• Emperors Diocletion & Constantine
The Roman Empire
Roman Empire during the crisis of
the 3 century
rd
- Diocletian
. split the Empire, continued to persecute
the Christians, established a new kind of
taxing system, restored order
- Constantine
. becomes Emperor when Diocletion dies
. ended the persecution of the Christians,
moved to support the Church and its clergy
. The Edict of Milan – Council of Nicaea
. moved the center of political control over the
Roman Empire eastward (Constantinople,
Byzantium)
. Rome remained the center of Catholicism
(eventually the Church will split)
. The western half of the Roman empire will
fall in 476 CE – the Byzantine Empire
continues (eastern half)
 Reasons for the Fall of the Roman
Empire
• Invasions by barbaric tribes
• Eco. Troubles & overreliance on slave labor
• The rise of the Eastern Empire
• Over expansion & military overspending
• Govt. corruption & political instability
• The arrival of the Huns (tied to #1 above)
• Christianity and the loss of traditional values
• Weakening ot the Roman Legions
The Roman Empire Divided
• Eastern Roman Empire
- Byzantine Empire – Capital is Constantinople
- Rome was the Capital in the western empire
- The Head of the Catholic Church (Pope) filled
the political void, as well as, the religious
leadership in the west
- The western part of the Roman Empire fell in
476 CE, however, the Church survived
• continued on for over 1000 years
- It was under repeated attacks through the
6th and 7th Centuries - it not only defended
itself, but was able to expand into N. Africa
& S. Italy
- The greatest challenge came from the
Sassanid Empire in Persia
• Strong leadership in the Byzantine Empire
- Justinian (maintain military strength, establish
a code of law (corpus juris civilis), great
interest intellectual life, application of math
and science concepts (flame thrower),
advancements in medicine, etc.)
- Constantinople became a major trade center
. Political officials and land owners at the top
of the social hierarchy
 . merchants and craftsman lower
. patriarchal system
- Religious life (Western and Easter Church
began to drift apart)
. similar organization bishops, priests,
dioceses, etc.
. western church believed that it had a higher
(more privileged) position – the Pope was
the Head of the entire Church community
• Backtrack for a minute (when/how did the
Roman Empire become a Christian Nation ?)
. Constantine – Edict of Milan (312 CE)
. Constantine – Council of Nicaea (325 CE)
. Theodosius – made Christianity the official
religion of the Roman Empire (380 CE)
• Back to the difference between the Western
and Eastern churches
• West (Roman Catholic) – Latin civilization, Church
& State united, less diverse, less interactive with
trade, etc. Religious difference
(priests are celibate, views on marriage and
divorce, Pope is supreme authority, some
doctrinal matters, etc.) – The Pope
• East (Eastern Orthodox) – Greek civilization, more
diverse environment (philosophies, ideas), larger
population area, more interactive with trade,
Church & State Separated, rejected
 the supremacy of the Roman Pope, etc.) – the
Patriarch
• In 1054 CE the Western and Eastern Churches
officially split (the Great Schism)
• Another aspect of the Christian movement – the
Monastic movement (not supported at first)
- Benedict of Nursia, The Rules of St. Benedict
. Benedictine Monks
• Other important events & people in this period
- St. Augustine (original sin, grace, and
redemption) the foundation of western
theological thought
- Merovingians & Carolingians (leaders of the
Franks in western Europe)
- Charles Martel defeated the Muslims in
France in 732 CE
• Charlemagne – reunited Europe and was
credited with “reviving the Roman Empire”
• A final event of enormous importance was the
growth and expansion of the Muslim (Arab)
Empire
MIDDLE EAST
●The Abrahamic Religions: Judaism, Christianity &
Islam
●Judaism: Around 2000 BCE, God spoke to a person
named Abraham – “Covenant, Land of Canaan, etc.
●Abraham and his followers went to Canaan and stayed
there several years – because of some environmental
issues they migrated to Egypt
● Comment on their experience in Egypt
●After several years of enslavement in Egypt God
asked Moses to lead the Hebrews out of Egypt and
back to the Land of Canaan. Eventually (after God’s
intervention – plagues), they left. This is know as the
“Exodus”. From where they were in Egypt to where
they were going (approx. 230 miles). The group
wandered in the Sinai Desert for 40 years. WHY?
● Moses receives God’s Laws (10 Commandments, the
Arc of the Covenant is created, Hebrew loyalty to God
is assured, etc.
● Upon return to Canaan the Hebrews discover that it is
now occupied by others – series of battles to regain
land and then a series of internal tensions to determine
who will lead the Hebrews
●There is considerable disunity in Canaan among the
12 tribes of Israel – eventually, the region is stabilized
by Kind David
● David will decide on Jerusalem as the location for the
political and religious center – he had planned on
building a Temple for Yahweh, but that didn’t happen
until after his son (Solomon) became King
● The Temple at Jerusalem is built by Solomon
● Groups of religious leaders begin to emerge (the
Prophetic Movement): Nathan, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Amos,
Micah, etc.
● They address the moral and justice issues of the day
●After the reign of Solomon the nation of Israel splits –
Israel (North) & Judea (South) – eventually, both
sections are captured and the Northern group
disappears from history (the lost tribes of Israel)
● The Jewish Diaspora begins: Their Temple has been
destroyed – Importance Ezekiel, Isaiah, and Ezra
●The beginning of the Synagogue & the start of the
Rabbi tradition
● Jewish communities (now scattered) begin to draw
sharper distinctions between themselves and non-
Jewish populations (Gentiles)
● Several sets of writing and books are presented
●Jewish holy book is called the “Torah” – other
important written works of Judaism are the “Mishnah”
and the “Talmud”
● What are the basic tenets of Judaism ?
● Monotheistic religion, general guidelines - (First 4 of the
10 Commandments outline the relationship between God
and the people, the last 6 outline how followers shout
relate to each other and society in general, afterlife, etc.)
● The Covenant

● The need for Justice, Charity, Healing the World, The

Sanctity of life
● A Messiah
● Not strongly committed to conversion
CUSTOMS, TRADITIONS, and SYMBOLS
● Circumcision
● Kosher ( regulates the Jewish diet
● Shabbat (sabbath) – Saturday
● Bar Mitzva (boy) -- Bat Mitzva (girl)
● Synagogue -- Rabbi
● Yom Kippur - Atonement & Repentance
● Rosh Hashanah - New Year
● Menorah
● Numerous groups
● A brief word about Judaism through the years
● Judaism is more than just a religion. It is the
entire history of a people – experience, culture,
etc.
● Covenant, Exodus, Diaspora, Holocaust, return to
their Homeland (1946)
 CHRISTIANITY
● Largest religion in the world – sect of Judaism
during the time of Augustus Caesar (Roman Peace)
● By this time the Roman Empire was nearly complete
-multiple religions
- common language
- harsh Roman rule (people were seeking a new
● Little non-Christian writing about his childhood,
however, it was clear that a movement was evolving
and the Roman Emperors felt threatened by it
religion and relief from Roman rule
● Into this world of frustration, anger, feelings of
detachment, and hope for deliverance came Jesus of
Nazareth
● What we do know comes largely from the Gospels –
Mark & John (older Jesus) Matthew & Luke
(childhood Jesus)
● Born in Bethlehem, Virgin Mary (Hebrew Prophet
Isaiah)
● Lived in Nazareth (Province of Galilee)
● Grew up in the Judaic environment and tradition
● Began his ministry around the age of 30 – 1st public
act was being Baptized by John the Baptist in the
Jordan River – John is believed to have been a
relative
● After his Baptisms he isolated for 40 days to
consider his ministry – tempted by Satan many
times
● Returned to Galilee and began his ministry
● It was there that he selected a band of followers
● No precise knowledge as to how long his ministry
lasted (1 to 3 yrs)
● He was a teacher and healer – sometimes referred to
as a Rabbi
● Taught (preached) in plain and simple language –
example – The Sermon on the Mount
● Use a lot of parables in his teaching (stories about
people and their circumstances) – good Samaritan,
prodigal son, etc.
● What about his themes: some say he was a pacifist
(turn the other cheek, etc.) – however, in Luke, he
urges his disciples to arm themselves; in Matthew, he
declares that I come not to bring peace, but a sword
● Other themes: disregard for some of the Jewish laws
and traditions – Jesus preached on the Sabbath, allowed
his disciples to work on the Sabbath and he raised a
question about the need for Kosher food when he said
“what comes out of a persons mouth is more important
than what goes in”
● He promoted human values: compassion, love,
justice, etc.
● The Gospels spend a lot of time covering the
“Miracles” of Jesus Christ – heal the sick, raise people
from the dead, walk on water, feed people, quiet
storms, etc.
● Other teachings: monotheistic, the trinity, afterlife,
redemption, salvation, and much more
● As his public ministry continued and as his
following grew, opposition increases: Pharisees,
Sadducees, Zealots, Rome
● Jerusalem and the Passover (Last Supper, Garden of
Gethsemane, Judas, Sanhedrin, Pontius Pilate,
Crucifixion, Resurrection
● Post- Resurrection – Our best understanding of the state
of Christianity at this time is found in the Book of Acts:
people, activities, messages, etc.
● Some principle players: Simon Peter, James, Stephen,
Paul (2nd Founder of Christianity)
●Practices retained: Baptism, Eucharist (Communion),
missionary efforts
● The early Church was loosely organized and structured
(a belief that Jesus would be returning soon)
● Church official began to evolve: Bishops, Deacons,
Elders
● Early Christians studied the books and writings of
Judaism: Torah, the writings of the Prophets (Isiah,
Micah, Zachariah, etc.)
●More “Christian” focused materials began to appear
midway through the 1st century C.E. and much of the
material is provided in the “Letters from Paul”
● As time passed fewer and fewer contemporaries of
Jesus were living, but accounts continued to be written
leading to controversy, different perspectives, etc.:
Examples: the nature of the Trinity was debated inside
and outside of the Church, Gnosticism, Marcionism,
Montanism, etc.
●The earliest years of Christianity were run from
Jerusalem – other cities also became centers for growth
(Alexandria, Antioch, & Rome to name a few)
● Each city was assigned a Bishop and the bigger the
city – the greater the influence of that Bishop
● Eventually, the Bishop in Rome came to be
recognized as the most influential of all - reasons:
Simon Peter (identified by Jesus as the rock upon
which he would build his Church)
● Simon Peter was the 1st Bishop of Rome and his
authority would be passed on to all succeeding Bishops
● When Constantine relocated his political capital from
Rome to Byzantium the Bishops in Rome began to
expand there influence and power over the western
Roman Empire
● The Eastern Church (as it was evolving) had no
single person that could speak for the Eastern Church –
the Bishop of Rome was widely accepted as the
speaker for the Western Church
●Ultimately. The Bishop of Rome would become the
Pope
● Other influential individuals and movements that
helped define and clarify Christian theology: Augustine
in the 5th century (Confessions – City of God)
presented ideas like: original sin, fall of man,
predestination
●The Christian Church began to advocate for a
“Monastic” movement
● The period of the three Popes
● Thomas Aquinas (Summa Theologiae – a discussion
dealing with the issue of “reason and faith”
●Protestant Reformation: John Wycliffe, Martin Luther,
Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, Henry VIII, etc.
● Catholic Counter-Revolution: Council of Trent –
reaffirmed selected theological doctrines, supported
veneration of religious relics – saints – etc., introduced the
Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
● Present Day challenges to the Church
● East – West differences
● Examples as to why/how they differed: East focused
more on theological questions - West focused on more
practical questions, East focused more on the Divine
nature of Christ – West focused more on his humanity,
Eastern Patriarchs represented influence among equals
– West represented singular influence by the Pope,
Papacy question, Baptism questions, celibacy questions
● Catholic vs. Protestant challenges (Relevance –
Vatican II, Catholic /Protestant division, limited
success for ecumenical proposals, array of Protestant
options
● Still the largest religion in the world, but plateauing
or declining – some new initiatives: Liberation
Theology, Fundamentalism, Evangelical (mega-church)
ISLAM
• Arabian peninsula
(desert, oasis, some fertile land; herding,
farming, trading; northern region – warrior
& nomadic -- southern region – more priestly-
aristocratic-settled; Mecca (Kaba); clan&tribe)
• Muhammad (dob: 570 CE)
- background (clan: Hashim – tribe: Quraish,
orphaned by age 6 (reared by his uncle –
leader of the Quraish tribe; merchant &
 trading family, little-to-no formal education,
early childhood-young adulthood spent on the
trade routes, very inquisitive individual, met
Kadija
• During his travels along the trade routes he made
numerous contacts with numerous people and was
exposed to lots of ideas
• He was particularly intrigued by the eschatology
of the monotheistic religions
• Concerned about the Arabs that maintained their
pagan religious beliefs and practices and about
other beliefs and tensions
- frequently meditated and reflected in isolation
in the hills and caves around Mecca
• Muhammad’s visions (interventions – 610 CE)
- Archangel Gabriel
• Muhammad went through a period of self-doubt
• Convinced by Khadija and others he began to
share his revelations
- Skeptical response (non-believers, Meccan
merchants, traders, etc.)
- A following begins to emerge
• The move from Mecca to Medina (hijra, 622
CE, generally cited as the beginning date of
Islam) -- more to come
Mecca & Medina
Ka'ba in Mecca
• But for now – more on the Muslim Faith
- Terms: Qur’an, Hadith, Sunnah, Umma,
the five pillars of Islam (a.profession of faith,
b.daily prayer (5 times), c.alms to the poor,
d.fasting during Ramadan, e.pilgrimage (hajj),
Sharia Law, Caliph & Caliphate – more as we
go along
• Early preaching of Muhammad
- limited success and interest in his message
. change in social order & destruction of Idols
. Meccan merchants, traders, etc. turned on
him
- Others (Medina) saw important leadership
qualities (in 622 CE he left Mecca and went
to Medina)
- In Medina he attracted more followers, eased
tensions, began to win over the Bedouin
traders, and increasing numbers turned to
Islam
. deadly tensions break out between Mecca
and Medina
. In 630 CE Muhammad returns to Mecca with
his army
. the religion continues to grow
• Muhammad dies in 632 CE
- No provisions were made for his successor –
under what arrangements and under what
leader would the umma unite?
- The next 4 leaders (Caliphs) are referred to
“The Rightly Guided Caliphs”: Abu Bakar,
Umar, Uthman, & Ali
. Caliph defined – guide the community and
enforce the laws
 - Important note: the LAW exists in the Qur’an;
the LAW has come directly from God;
government does not exist to make laws, but
to administer and enforce them
- Under the Rightly Guided Caliphs the
notion of a Caliphate is born
• Great questions over who the successor to
Muhammad should be (two different thoughts)
- A successor could be selected from the body
of believers and those who lived and practiced
the teachings of Muhammad
- A successor must be a descendent of
Muhammad – Muhammad was selected by
God to lead and promote his kingdom on
earth, therefore the direct line of succession
must be maintained
• Two branches of Islam: Sunni & Shia
- Sunni is the largest (85%) of all Muslims and
believe that the successor can be selected
from the Umma (Ulama)
- Shia is the Smallest (most concentrated in
present day Iran) and believe that the only
legitimate successor must be a direct
descendent of Muhammad
• Back to the group (Rightly Guided Caliphs) and
where they came from
- Abu Bakar, Umar, Uthman (all followers of
Muhammad, but not direct descendants)
- Ali (direct descendant of Muhammad)
• Period of the Four Caliphs (1st Caliphate)
- Abu Bakar held the Umma together because
of his association with Muhammad
 - Umar united the developing Empire
- Uthman stabilized the economy
- Ali institutionalized the Caliphate
• The period was characterized both by great
success and ongoing tension
- Rival families ruled the Caliphate and the
untimely and suspicious nature of the deaths
of the Caliphs created ill-will
- However, during this period the boundaries of
Arab Empire were greatly expanded
. two major rivals (Byzantine Empire &
Sassavid Empire) – eastward through Egypt
across North Africa to Spain, Northward thru
Turkey into the Balkins, and westward as far
as the west coast of China (religious zeal,
professional army, weak opponents, etc.)
• The rise of the Umayyad Empire
- Mu’awiya (the head of the Umayyad family)
did not accept Ali as the legitimate leader
- Civil strife breaks out and Ali is assassinated
- Center of Islam is relocated to Damascus,
Syria
- Introduced the idea of hereditary leadership
(Caliphs) – Yazid (son of Mu’awiya)
Umayyad Empire
 . hugely important battle took place in 680 CE
(Karbala) --- Husayn is defeated
. sharply divided the groups within the Umma
(Sunni – Shia)
. who interprets the Qur’an (Imans or Ulama)
• Abbasid Empire replaces the Umayyad Empire
- Capital is relocated to Bagdad
- Empire is more diverse, more cosmopolitan,
great emphasis on Islamic scholarship
- Governance of the Empire was gaining
importance
- Baghdad ( House of Wisdom)
. 1 million population, major trade and
commercial center, intellectual & cultural
center (astronomy, medicine, law, philosophy,
mathematics, poetry, etc.
. brief video – House of Wisdom
ANCIENT BAGHDAD
• Abbasid Caliphate (Sunni, took advice from the
Ulama, expanded Empire from Spain to
Afghanistan, adopted the idea of the Divine Rt.
of Kings, Baghdad was the center of the
Empire, utilized slaves as soldiers (Janissaries
& Mamlukes) …. Cordoba (in Spain)
- Adm. structure (Caliph, Vizier, Ulama [sharia
law], Qadis [judges], Emirs, Drvian
[bureaucracy])
Abbasid Empire
• Empire in decline
- size
- local control
- internal rivalries
- outside invaders
. Seljuks Turks & Mongols
Mongol Empire
• Characteristics of Muslim Society
- Social equality & social hierarchy
. position of women in particular
- economic activity
- cultural life
- emphasis on education
• Islam and other religions
- In India – Hinduism
- In Central Asia – Buddhism
- In Persia – Zoroastrianism
- In W. Asia & Europe – Judaism & Christianity
• Muslim – Christian Relations
- Shared history, exchanged history-cultural
aspects-trade-general harmony
- Greatest divide was over doctrinal differences
. Belief that their close proximity (living and
otherwise) would be corrosive toward the
other
. examples: question of the trinity, the Divine
nature of Christ, legitimacy (accuracy) of their
Holy writings, Christians had rejected the
covenant between Abraham & God, etc.
. led to avoidance, led to religious tensions
(Crusades)
. And like the growing divide that separates
Shia & Sunni ---- Christian & Muslim
 Examples of Islamic Influence on
World History
• Strong emphasis on learning and scholarship
• Salvation and translation of many ancient writings
• Health care: surgical instruments, surgical
procedures, mental illness, disease immunity
• Science & Math: astronomy, chemistry, physics,
algebra, etc.
• Mosques: centers for public discourse & libraries
AFRICA
Map of Ancient Africa
• Comment on the History of Africa
• The role of geography in the history of Africa
- 20% of the land surface of the earth, 2nd
largest continent, there is no one Africa, 5
climate zones, climate and location greatly
influenced economic development, etc.
• Early societies
- Hunting and gathering, agricultural revolution,
 settled societies begin to appear, etc.
- Bantu Migrations and their influence on large
sections of Africa
• Three regions of particular interest
- the Sudan and western Africa, the eastern
kingdoms of Ethiopia, the Great Zimbabwe in
the South
- the importance of the trans-Saharan trade to
western Africa
- Early struggles on the trade routes
- Impact of trade on West Africa (3)
. 1) stimulated gold mining, 2) mining created
a need for slaves, 3) gave rise to the
development of urban centers (Jenna, Gao,
Timbuktu, etc.)
- The spread of Islam in Africa
Comment on why and how the History of
Africa has been misrepresented,
distorted, and misunderstood !
 Partial Explanation for Africa’s
Neglect
• Required justification to support brutality of
African slavery
• Contrasts in cultures (especially European)
between Africa & many other places
• Importance of a historical writing in the United
States – U.B. Philips (American Negro Slavery)
• Textbook sales in U.S.
• America’s pop culture images of Africa
 The Kingdoms of West Africa

• Early identity as “stateless societies”

• Age of Africa’s Great Empires 800-1500
(Ghana, Mali, Songhai)
• Ghana
- Advanced agro. techniques (irrigation, crop
rotation, centralized government (King),
acquired land through conquest (standing
army), established govt. departments
(Council of Ministers – taxation, war,
foreign affairs, trade), society had a hierarchy,
expanded trade, evidence of 2-3 level
buildings, had a judicial system (courts and
a system of laws)
City In Ancient Ghana
• Mali
- As the Ghana Empire declined it divided into
several smaller kingdoms that feuded
among themselves – Mali emerges
- Strong agro. and commercial base &
exceptional leadership
- Linked all the trading centers together (Gao,
Jenna, Walata, & Timbuktu)
 - Successfully expanded the boundaries of
the Mali Empire
• Impact of Mansa Musa (strong leader,
expansionist, visionary, introduced regional
political control, became a Muslim, made a
legendary trip to Mecca 1324-25, converted
Timbuktu into a center for learning, etc.)
Ancient Timbuktu in Mali
• Songhai
- The largest and last of the three great
empires of West Africa (originated from GAO)
- Continued to expand the boundaries,
established educational centers (schools)
throughout the Empire,
- Had strong and effective leadership in the
early years (refined govt. systems,
 expanded sub-Saharan trade, cities
continued to expand and develop, finally
fell to outside invasions during the late 16th
century
• European contact and rivalry contributed to this
decline as well
City in Ancient Songhai
 Ethiopia – Christian Kingdom
• Influenced by Egyptian culture & society which
had been part of the previous Greek & Roman
Empires
• Christian rulers in the upper Nile region had
connected with populations in the Sudan
including Ethiopia
- Judaism & Islam were also present in this
region
• Focal point of the Christian presence in this
region was the kingdom of Aksum on the Red
Sea – sea trading economy
• Eventually, the Arab expansion southward
began to undermine the Aksum’s trading
network
• Many Christians fled into the mountain regions
where they continued to evolve their Christian
identity
• A leader emerged (Frumentis) and he was
eventually made the 1st Bishop in the area
• Ethiopia’s unique situation ( a Christian oasis in a
largely Muslim area)
- The Church’s presence was affirmed and
preserved through writings and buildings
. monogamy was practiced, the church was
the dominant social unit, had a somewhat
feudal system in place
. the nation’s history was recorded in the
Kebra Nagast (the Story of Kings)
. comment on one ruler – Queen Makeda
(Sheba) and her relation to Solomon (son
of David)
. comment on the story that arose about a
Catholic Priest (Prestor John) and his effort
to reclaim the region from Muslim control
• Christianity became the official State religion in
330 CE
 Other East African City-States
• Other City-States evolved along the trade
routes (around the Horn of Africa and down the
East Coast along the Indian Ocean
- Kilwa, Mogadishu, Mombasa are a few
examples – most began as trading centers
- Ivory, iron, cloth, gold, animal skins, slaves
 The Great Zimbabwe
• Located in the Southern and Southeastern
regions of Africa
• Had a mix of geographic and environmental
circumstances: deserts, grasslands, river
systems, coastal regions, etc.
• Economy shaped by enormous deposits of
natural resources: gold, copper, diamonds,
uranium, platinum, ALSO, coastal trade,
herding, etc.
• Much more isolated that other regions of Africa
• The Portuguese arrived in the late 15th century
• The family was the basic social unit, it was
primarily a patriarchal society, polygyny was
practiced
• Thought to be a region of Nomadic wandering
late into the 19th Century
• Archaeologist began to uncover the ruins of a
large city called Great Zimbabwe
• The city seemed to rule over a large part of the
region: stone buildings/walls, metal works,
domesticated animals, extensive mining
operations, evidence of a centralized
government and a large settled population
• The findings caused a rethinking of the history
of the region and the level of its sophistication
as a culture and a society
The Stonework in the Cities in the
Great Zimbabwe