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Ancient Histories

Question 1

What were the major achievements of the Egyptians? How did they influence later

societies?

Ancient Egypt was a civilization in ancient North Africa, centered in the area that is

now Egypt's country along the lower reaches of the Nile River. Ancient Egyptian civilization

preceded prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3100 BC (according to standard Egyptian

chronology) with the political union of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes (often

associated with Narmer). Ancient Egypt's history unfolded as a sequence of unified kingdoms

divided by periods of relative chaos known as intermediate times: the Old Kingdom. The

prosperity of ancient Egyptian civilization was due in part to its ability to adapt to the

agricultural conditions of the Nile River Valley (Asukile and Thabiti 322-347). The fertile

valley's regular flooding and regulated irrigation created surplus crops that sustained a denser

population as well as social and cultural growth. With spare resources, the administration

funded mineral exploration of the valley and neighboring desert regions, early development

of an autonomous writing system, organization of joint building and agricultural ventures,

trade with surrounding regions, and an army built to claim Egyptian hegemony. The

motivation and organization of these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes,

administrators and religious leaders under the control of a pharaoh who wanted to ensure that

the Egyptian people's cooperation and unity in an elaborate religious belief system.
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There several achievements that ancient Egypt accomplished, some of these

achievements include the techniques of construction, quarrying, and surveying that enabled

the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks. Ancient Egypt also formulated

a system of practical, mathematics, and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems, and

agricultural production techniques[ CITATION EAW16 \l 2057 ]. The first known planked boat

was discovered during the ancient Egypt; Egyptian faience and glass technology; new forms

of lite

All these discoveries made ancient Egypt leave a long-lasting legacy that has

contributed in some way to the development of modern this society. Societies and globally

have greatly benefited and developed and it has been as a result of the influence by the

ancient Egypt. Its sculpture and architecture have been widely copied and its antiques have

been shipped to far corners of the world. Its massive monumental ruins have inspired

travellers and writers imaginations for centuries. A new respect for excavations and

antiquities by Egyptians and Europeans in the early modern period led to the scientific

research of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural heritage[ CITATION

Tob11 \l 2057 ].

Question 2

Discuss the nature of Harappan society. What makes this society so unique? Compare it

to other contemporary ancient societies?

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a civilization of the Bronze Age in the north-

western regions of South Asia, spanning from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE. The Indus Valley

Society was one of three "Ancient East" cultures, considered to be the cradles of society of

the ancient world of man and one of the most widespread; the other two Ancient east

societies were Mesopotamia and Pharonic; Indus Valley Civilization's history is often divided

into three different stages: Early Harappan (3300-2600 BCE), Mature Harappan (2600-1900
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BCE) and late Harappan (1900-1300 BCE). Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were the Indus

Valley Civilization's two great cities that emerged around 2600 BCE along the Indus River

Valley in Pakistan's Sindh and Punjab provinces (Singh and Gurcharan). Their 19th and 20th

century discovery and excavation provided important archaeological data on the art,

commerce, technology, writing, transportation, and religion of civilization. The Indus Valley

people, also known as Harappan (Harappa was the first city discovered by archaeologists in

the region), made many notable advances in technology, including great precision in their

structures and measuring instruments for length and weight.

At its peak, the Indus Valley Civilization may have a population of more than five

million people. It's considered as Bronze Age culture, and ancient Indus River Valley people

also developed new metallurgical techniques – the science of dealing with copper, bronze,

gold, and tin. They also undertaken intricate craftsmanship, particularly using products made

from Carnelian semi-precious gemstone, as well as seal carving – cutting patterns into the

bottom of a seal used for stamping. Indus cities are known for baked bricks houses, urban

planning, water supply systems, elaborate drainage systems, and large, non-residential

building clusters (Ravi). The economy of civilization seems to have been heavily dependent

on trade, encouraged by major advances in transportation technology. The Harappan

Civilization may have been the first to use wheeled transport in the form of bullock carts

identical to today's South Asian cars. They also appear to have built boats and watercraft — a

claim backed by archaeological discoveries of a massive, dredged canal, and what is

considered to be a docking facility in Lothal's coastal city. Harappans are thought to have

used Indus Script, a symbolic language. A collection of written texts dating from 3300-3200

BCE on clay and stone tablets uncovered at Harappa contain trident-shaped, plant-like

markings. This Indus Script indicates writing developed independently from the script used in

Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt in the Indus River Valley Civilization[ CITATION Cra08 \l
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2057 ]. The religion of Harappan remains a subject of speculation. It was widely suggested

that a mother goddess symbolizing fertility was worshipped by the Harappans. Unlike

Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations, the Civilization of the Indus Valley appears to

have lacked any temples or palaces that would give clear evidence of religious rites or deities.

Some Indus Valley seals show a symbol of swastika that was included in later Indian

religions including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

The people of civilization of Indus Valley have not built massive temples like their

ancestors, nor have they buried riches in golden tombs among their dead. There were no

mummies, no emperors, and in their territories there were no brutal wars or bloody battles.

While other civilizations devoted enormous amounts of resources and time to the

supernatural, the dead and the rich, the inhabitants of Indus Valley took a practical approach

to support the secular, common, and living people. They certainly believed in an afterlife,

using a system of social divisions. But they also assumed that the distribution of capital

among the living was more important than on show or buried underground. Surprisingly, the

civilization of the Indus Valley seems to have been a peaceful one[ CITATION Gre02 \l 2057 ].

Very few weapons were found and there was no sign of an army. Excavated human bones do

not reveal any signs of violence, and there is no indication of battle in building remains. All

evidence points to a desire for and achievement of stability. Remarkably, the absence of all of

these makes the civilization of the Indus Valley so exciting and unique compared to other

ancient societies.

Question 3

Examine the changing social structure of ancient India. How did Hinduism mirror the

social complexity of India? What role did the caste system play?

Ancient India can be divided into two phases, before brahmins and after brahmins.

Brahmanas are commentaries written by Rishis on Vedas rites, ceremonies and sacrifices
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(also called śruti(“what is heard”)) and some epic books such as Ramayana by Valmiki Rishi

and Mahabharata by Maharshi Vyas. Before the Brahmins social structure was king of two

stages and the people in the kingdom (i.e. Raja and Praja). All people in a kingdom were on

the same level of respect despite having different jobs and economic levels. The Brahmanas

are especially noted for their instructions on the proper performance of rituals, as well as for

the original symbolic meanings translated into words and rituals. Ancient India in the Vedic

Period (1500-1000 BCE) had no social stratification based on socio-economic indicators;

rather, men were categorized by their Varna or castes. Varna defines a newborn's hereditary

roots, it indicates a person's type, colour, order or class (Dharampal et al.). There are four

main categories: Brahmins (priests, gurus, etc.), Kshatriyas (kings, warriors, administrators,

etc.), Vaishyas (farmers, traders, etc., also known as Vysyas), and Shudras (labourers). Each

Varna sets forth specific principles of life to follow; newborns are required to follow the

fundamental customs, rules, behavior and beliefs of their respective Varnas.

Hinduism has impacted the social structure of Indian society through the castle system

Reincarnation is a strongly held belief in Hinduism, and Hindu doctrine states that death may

enter a person into a higher caste based on virtuous behaviour. An individual in India had

little social mobility, and the only path forward was through the next life. Evidence shows

that the Hindu caste system is cited in the Vedas, ancient documents that form the core of

Hindu philosophy. The two main castes are the warriors and aristocracy Brahmin, meaning

priests, and Kshatriya. Those who fall outside the caste system, commonly known as

untouchables, did jobs like extracting remains of animals and working with leather. In all of

Indian society, there were thousands of castes and sub-castes[ CITATION Rob13 \l 2057 ]. In the

next life, somebody from the Shudra class could become a Brahmin, according to Hindu

thought. In the case of other creatures, souls could also be reincarnated, which is why many

Hindus practice vegetarianism. It was prohibited to marry someone from another castle;
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people were married in their own caste. A Brahmin might give the poor food, but if he

accepted any food from someone below his social standing, a priest would be corrupted.

Untouchables were deemed so tainted that another caste member would be infected by their

existence.

The caste system establishes a hierarchy of social roles that have intrinsic features

and, more significantly, remain stable throughout life. The implications of social

categorizations are often seen not only in the nature of social interactions, but also in the

portrayal of social status. The Indian / Hindu caste system, which is an integral feature of the

Indian societal structure, is of interest to the present research. Not only does Caste dictate

one's occupation, but also dietary habits and interaction with other caste members. High caste

members enjoy more wealth and resources while low caste members do menial jobs. The

untouchables are outside the caste system. Untouchable tasks, such as cleaning the toilet or

removing trash, required them to be in contact with body fluids. Therefore, they are

considered polluted and not to be touched. In early Sanskrit literature, the importance of

purity in the body and food is found.

Question 4

Discuss the influence of ancient China. What ancient innovations continued to shape

Chinese thought over the centuries? How did the ancient Chinese influence their

neighbors?

China has a rich, thousand-year-old culture. A key feature of that history was the

passion for creativity of the Chinese. These Chinese inventions influenced the entire history

of the world. In the East Asian area, China has historically looked to its neighbors as the most

important foreign-policy countries. These are states that in and before the Qing dynasty had

tributary relationships with China. It is a region heavily influenced by the history of China.

Ancient China has covered a large and ever-changing geopolitical landscape and, predictably,
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the art it has created over three millennia is just as varied. Nevertheless, despite ongoing

indigenous technical developments, changes in materials and tastes, and the influence of

foreign ideas, there are certain qualities inherent in Chinese art that make it possible to

describe in general terms and to recognize where and for what purpose it was produced.

These essential qualities include a love of nature, a belief in the moral and educational

capacity of art, appreciation of accomplished brushwork, an admiration for simplicity,  an

interest in viewing the subject from different perspectives, and a loyalty from lotus leaves to

dragons to much-used motifs and designs (Xuetong et al. 273). Chinese art would have a

tremendous influence on its neighbors in East Asia, and its accomplishments continue to be

admired worldwide, particularly in ceramics, painting, and jade work.

Ancient China has contributed a lot to the modern world. After 1600BCE, ancient

China had started its innovation towards contributing to the modern world. Their most

important contribution was their produced inventions some of which were invented through

mistakes and accident (Beeson 25). Several innovations were developed by the ancient

Chinese, many of which made their way to Europe and changed the rest of the world

dramatically. Some of ancient China's most important inventions were: printing press, paper,

compass silk, and water clock. Paper has been their most proud effort, as it is still being used

today. Paper was initially made very thick, until someone found a way to make a fine, thin

piece of paper. They cut dried bamboo first, squash it into powder, mix it with water, then use

a very thin slice of material to lay it on and let it dry[ CITATION Nic07 \l 2057 ]. Ancient

Chinese paper had been invented because it took the dense hard paper to write on forever.

Paper made a contribution to the modern world as it is still being used today.

According to Dend and Wang (304) China has been considered one of civilization's

centers. The evolving cultures that emerged from the migration of the Yellow River's original

Han settlers are sometimes considered the starting point of the East Asian world. As the
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power and influence of China continues to grow in Asia and beyond, its historical influence

of ancient China has not only been confined to this narrow definition, as it has also spread to

Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar, Indonesia, Singapore, and

the Philippines through the establishment of significant overseas Chinese communities and

societies in the diaspora. The social sphere of East Asia shares a Confucian moral Buddhism,

philosophy, Taoism, and it has historically shared an ancient Han Chinese writing system.
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Work Cited

Asukile, Thabiti. “JOEL AUGUSTUS ROGERS: BLACK INTERNATIONAL

JOURNALISM, ARCHIVAL RESEARCH, AND BLACK PRINT CULTURE.” The

Journal of African American History, vol. 95, no. 3/4, 2010, pp. 322–347.

Beeson, Mark. Regionalism and Globalization in East Asia. Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.

Cosmo, Nicola Di. Ancient China and its enemies : the rise of nomadic power in East Asian

history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Deng, Yinke and Pinxing Wang. Ancient Chinese inventions : 3,000 years of science and

technology. Beijing: China Intercontinental Press, 2005.

Dharampal, Gita, et al. Key concepts in modern Indian studies. Washington Square, New

York: New York University Press, 2015.

E A Wallis Budge, Sir. The Egyptian book of the dead : the Papyrus of Ani / Egyptian text

with line-by-line English translation, translated by E. A. Wallis Budge. San Diego,

California: The Book Tree, 2016.

Lockard, Craig A. Societies, networks and transitions : a global history. Boston, Mass:

Houghton mifflin, 2008.

Possehl, Gregory L. The Indus civilization : a contemporary perspective. Walnut Creek, CA:

AltaMira Press, 2002.

Ravi, N. The Significance of Culture, Social Structure, and Popular Hinduism for

Evangelism and Church Planting in Hindu Indian Villages, 1993, pp. ProQuest

Dissertations and Theses.

Singh, Gurcharan. INDIAN DIPLOMACY IN THE MIDDLE EAST, 1973, pp. ProQuest

Dissertations and Theses

Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the world : a brief global history. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's,

2013.
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Wilkinson, Toby. The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt The History of Civilisation from

3000BC to Cleopatra. London Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2011.

Xuetong, Yan, Daniel A Bell and Sun Zhe. Ancient Chinese Thought, Modern Chinese

Power (New in Paperback). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013.