Indian Religious and Culture

Indian Religions
and Culture (IRC)

Lecture Notes
Scintila .N.J
Indian Religions and Culture (IRC) Lecture Notes
1. PRE-ARYAN CULTURE OF INDIA
The earliest history of mankind is known as the pre-historical period. It is classified into
many stages according to man‟s progress towards civilization. They were:
1. Paleolithic Period (300000 BC – 8000 BC), Old Stone Age

2. Mesolithic Period (8000 – 4000 BC), Late Stone Age, used microliths and small tools
3. Neolithic Period (4000 – 1800 BC), New Stone Age
4. Copper and Bronze Age, (1800 – 1000 BC), Chalcolithic
5. Iron Age (1000 BC – 500 BC)
Due to intense agricultural activities a number of villages emerged which turned to towns and
then into cities. From these centres eventually arose the first civilizations of the world, all of
them located in broad river valleys.
 The Mesopotamian Civilization in the Valleys of Tigris and Euphrates

 Egyptian Civilization valley of Nile
 Indus Valley Civilization in the valley of Indus
 Chinese Civilization in the valley of Hwang Ho (Yellow River)
Around 3500 BC the first cities developed in Mesopotamia, followed by Egypt and India
and later in China.
Indus Valley Civilization
In 1921 the Archaeological excavations carried out at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa brought to
light a Civilization, which was called as the Indus Valley Civilization. It is considered as
India‟s first and earliest civilization. Thus the Indus valley civilization acquired prominence
like the other civilizations in Egypt, and Mesopotamia. Unfortunately, we don‟t have any
written records about the period. So we are unable to form an adequate idea on their political
history, culture and civilization. It is mainly because the words engraved in the Mohenjo-
Daro and Harappa, seals have not been deciphered yet. So the entire informations derived
only through careful examination of the objects found from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
Harappa is the first Indus site to be discovered and excavated in 1921. The Indus Valley
Civilization was originally called Harappan Civilization after this site. It is situated in
Montgomery district of Punjab (now in Pakistan). Mohenjo-Daro literally means the “mound
of the Dead.” it is the largest of all the Indus cities. It is situated in Larkana district of Sind
(now in Pakistan). The distance between the two places is 650 km.
The excavations started at both the places under the supervision of Sir John Marshall. After
excavations, it was estimated that the town was built and rebuilt more than seven times. In
addition to Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa later found some other sites like Chanhudaro,
Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Banawali (Haryana), Surkotada, Dholavira (Gujarat), etc.
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Town Planning
Common Characteristic features of Indus Valley Town Planning
a) Systematic town planning system: grid system was present that is streets and lanes
cutting across one another almost st right angles. Thus dividing the city into several
rectangular blocks.
b) Uniformity in town planning: that is all these sites includes two district elements:
citadel and lower town (residential areas). The citadel includes religious buildings,
granaries, residence of the members of the ruling class etc. below the citadel is the
lower town, consisting of the houses of the commoners.
c) Use of standardised burnt bricks and absence of stone buildings.
d) Presence of underground drainage system, connecting all houses to street drains with
manholes.
In addition to these features well arranged water supply, street light system, public wells,
every things reveals the high sense of engineering and town planning of the people.
The cities Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were fairly big and beautiful. It was designed
skillfully and were made of well-burnt good bricks and not stone. Multistoried buildings were
present which were furnished with courtyards, stairways, well, drains, bathrooms etc. the
most imposing structure in the city is the Great Bath. Mohenjo-Daro, which consists of a
large pool in the centre with rooms on all sides. The city had wide and straight street. So we
could find that the art of building had reached a high degree of perfection and adequate water
and efficient drainage system demonstrate an advanced state of civic authority.
Economy
Agriculture: main crops were wheat and Barley, later cotton includes – wooden plough used.
Craft Production and Technology: presence of specialised groups of artisans such as bronze-
smiths, gold-smiths, weavers, terracotta manufactures etc. used many tools, used Bronze,
commonly used silver – well developed pottery.
Trade and Commerce: Inter-regional trade was carried out with Rajasthan, Sawrashtra,
Maharashtra, South India, parts of Western UP and Bihar. Foreign trade was mainly
conducted mainly with Mesopotamia or Sumeria and Bahrain.
Main imports were gold, copper etc. and exports were wheat, barley, peas, products such as
cotton goods, pottery, terracotta statues etc. all exchanges were probably carried on through
Barter system. There is no idea about their currency. Trade was carried on by overland as
well as overseas transport.
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The Dravidians
The Dravidians were the most important of the pre-Aryan races of India other than Kols and
Bhils. Their place of origin is a matter of much controversy. Some hold that they are the
direct descendants of the men of the stone and metal ages and were among the original
inhabitants of India. But some scholars argues that, they came from the south through the
submerged Indo-African tact, and their origin is traced to the Negro race of Africa. But it was
not much accepted because of the difference between the two race is well-marked. According
to some, they belongs to the Mekran coast or the north Western passes, for which we could
find some proof like the resemblance between the languages of Dravidians and the Brahuis in
southern Baluchistan. But there is no any other resemblances in their customs or practices.
Whatever it is, one thing is certain that the Dravidians were a distinguished race with higher
degree of civilisation that they had attained some five thousand years ago. At present the
Dravidians mostly confined to the south, but they had left ineffaceable traces of their
language and institutions in Northern India. At the same time, the inhabitants of Bengal and
U.P still bear some traces of the Dravidian race marks in their physical features.
Kols and Bhils
The Dravidians were simple, peace loving people who practiced agriculture as their main
profession. They were familiar with the art of making weapons, pottery and skilled in making
gold ornaments. They were much advanced and had established great cities and kingdoms in
India and had carried on a large trade with ancient Egypt, Palestine, Persia, Mesopotamia,
Babylonia and Asia Minor. They had highly developed languages, quite different from
Sanskrit, the Aryan language. Tamil, Telugu, Kanarese, Malayalam and Tulu belong to this
group. Of all these Tamil, the language of most civilised Dravidians developed a fine
literature, which is fully independent of Sanskrit. The Dravidians also held a well-defined
system of administration.
Their social system was matriarchal and the mothers with their children formed the nucleus
of the society. Their society was divided into groups, each following its own rules called
Totenism. Their religion was based on fear-complex and they seem to have worshipped the
mother goddess and other deities including trees and animals.
Later, when Aryans invaded India, the Dravidians tried to resist them, but they were
gradually pushed back by them into the Deccan and far south where they continued to live
and foster their own culture. The other races present during the Indus valley period were the
Kols, Bhils etc. but the Dravidians were the most important race among them.
Culture and Society
Polity: there is not much evidence about the nature of their political system. According to
some historians the priests constituted the ruling class but according to some others
merchants were the rulers. But whatever be its nature, it is evident that they had a very
efficient and well-organised administrative system.
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Religion
From the seals, amulets and excavated materials we may derive some informations on the
religious ideas of the Indus Valley period. Some Indus Valley seals show Swastikas [ 卐]
which are found in some religions like Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The earliest
evidence for elements of Hinduism are alleged to have been present before and during the
early Harappan period. The chief male deity was the Pasupati Mahadeva (Proto-Siva),
represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne, and having three faces and
two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo, each facing a
different direction), and two deer appear at his feet.
In view of the large number of figurines found in the Indus Valley, some scholars believe that
the Harappan people worshipped a Mother Goddess (Goddess of Earth). Which is considered
as their chief female deity and as a symbol of fertility. There is sufficient evidence for the
prevalence of Phallic (linga) worship which came to be closely associated with Siva in later
times. Indus people also worshipped gods in the form of trees (pipal), neem etc.) and animals
like humpless bull, tiger, snake etc. Dove was also considered as a sacred bird. Sun was
regarded as one of the greatest gods. People believed in magic and superstitions also and
wore amulets for some protection. There were some other Gods like, a unicorn God called
„Ma‟, Cattle God which is represented as Goddess Kali. It has been suggested that the four-
armed deities are anticipated to be Gods like Lord Brahma and Lord Vishnu.
There are no religious buildings or evidence of elaborate burials. If there were temples, they
have not been identified. They believed in the life after death because the graves often
contained household pottery, ornaments, which it was thought that he or she might need it
after death. Whatever it is until is sufficient evidence, speculation about the religion of the
Indus Valley Civilisation is largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu
perspective.
Script and Language
Harappan script is regarded as pictographic because its signs represent birds, fish, varieties of
human form etc. the number of signs of Harappan script is known to be between 400 and 600
, of which about 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their variants. The task of decipherment of
this script is not yet possible.
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2. CULTURE AND RELIGION ON THE ARYANS
The Vedic Literature
The Vedic Texts
The word „Veda‟ is derived from the root „vid‟, which means to know, signifying „knowledge
par excellence.‟ The Vedic texts were four canonical samhitas, which is composed in Vedic
Sanskrit, and the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest
scriptures of Hinduism.
The four canonical books were
1. Rig-Veda
2. Yajur-Veda
3. Sama-Veda
4. Atharva-Veda
These four together contain the basis for the Hindu religion. It constitutes the Vedic literature
which is considers as the earlier texts found in India. Earliest of the four was the Rig-Veda,
probably first composed about 1500 BC and codified between 1200-800 BC.
The authorship of Vedas is unknown. According to the traditional claim the Veda originally
heard by sages and then passed on orally through generations of teachers. They were finally
written down to ensure their preservation.
The first Veda Rig-Veda, 1058 hymns, contains mainly prayers in praise of Gods associated
with elements, and some rules concerning the ceremonies and sacrifices when prayers were
offered. It is the earliest work of Indo-Aryans. All the other Vedic Samhitas followed the
Rig-Veda. The Yajur and Sama-Veda borrowed much from the Rig-Veda and were largely
for the use of priests. The first three Vedic Samhitas (Rig, Yajur & Sama) called Vedic
Traya. Yajur has Black and White parts among this Black contains prose and verse and White
with verse only. The fourth Veda Atharva contained original hymns and incarnations of a
more popular nature, intended. for eg. to cure illness.
The hymns in Rig-Veda still has a prominent place in the sacred texts of Hindus. The period
of the Vedas, Brahmnas and Upanishads is considered as a transition from the pre-history to
History.
Yajur-Veda: We get informations on the social and religious conditions in the society. So it is
important from the historical point of view. Some informations on magic and charms also.
Sama-Veda: It contains verses taken from the Rig-Veda with reference to sacrifice and set of
music.
Atharva-Veda: It contains 6000 mantras revealing the history of science in India.
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Later Vedic Literature
 Sutras: With the advent of time, new social customs developed and it embodied in books
separately. It altogether known as Sutras. Sutras sub divided into three classes.
5. Srauta Sutras: deals with the great Vedic sacrifices, „soma‟ and other religious
matters.
6. Griha Sutras: deals with various duties to be performed by a family man throughout
his life.
7. Dharma Sutras: it mainly concerned with the society rather than family or individual.
From this we could get information on the ordinary laws and practice prevalent in the
ancient Indian society.
 Vedangas: It is a part of Vedic texts which deals with many parts according to their
content.
 Upavedas: thay are some other texts known as Upavedas or Subsidiary subjects, e.g.
Ayurveda, Dhanurveda.
 Puranas: written during 3rd century AD. But composition consisted till 1000 AD. They
are 18 in number and each is divided into five sections. It deals with the old dynasties,
kings, ancient traditions, social, religious and political life of ancient India. So we could
consider it as a historical material which helped the historians to constructed ancient
Indian history.
 The Epics: two great epics, named Ramayana and Mahabharata – we could get much
information on the activities of several formidable heroes of the Vedic period and later
Vedic period – also about socio-religious and political life of the time.
 Dharma Shastras: eg. Manu Smriti, Vishnu Smriti, Narada Smriti etc. we could get
much information on the laws and judicial procedure of the Aryans. Manu Smriti is most
important among them. Here the system of Varna (caste) and the privileges of the
members of each caste and duties assigned are fully explained. It also mentions on laws
of inheritance, duties of the kings and the subjects, law on punishments, partnership and
loans, judicial procedure and system etc.
 Six schools of Indian Philosophy: known as Darshanas or Shastras. In this, Rishis tried
to explain intricate philosophical thoughts connecting God, soul, death and birth. It also
explains how the deep wisdom of the Aryans was superior, how they were ahead of others
and how they could check the temptations of materialism.
Six schools were:
1. Sankhya Shastra of Kapila

2. Yoga Shastra of Patanjali
3. Nyaya Shastra of Gautama
4. Vaisheshik Shastra of Kanad
5. Purva Mimansa of Jamini
6. Uttar Mimansa of Vyasa
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Later Vedic Age or Epic Age
The Epics Ramayana and Mahabharata
The period lying between the Rig Vedic Age and the rise of Buddhism ( from 2000 BC to
700 BC) called the Later Vedic Age or the Epic Age. From both the Ethics we could analyse
the political, social and religious life of the time. Till today, the people are sentimentally
attached to the morals and values highlighted in the books and try to practice the same with
sincerity and devotion. The record reveals numerous materials directly useful for
reconstructing a sober contemporary history.
The Ramayana
 Written by Rishi Valmiki.

 Contains 24000 verses (slokas) and divided into seven canto
 Divergent opinions on time of composition.
 According to Indian, it was around 3000 BC, But according to European critics, 400 BC-
200 AD.
 It is clear that it composed at later stage but events and incidents narrated in the book
relate to much earlier times.
 It is considered not only a divine revelation, but a religious force and inspiration to
Hindus.
 Translated into Western languages as well as Indian languages.
 Indeed it is full of stories of heroic deeds, examples of sacrifices, devotion and religious
ardours.
 It has great influence to the people of walks of life and influenced the religious and
cultural life of common people.
 Politically it reveals the struggle of Aryans with non-Aryans and steady expedition of the
Aryans up to the end of Indian subcontinent.
There are also different views on the historic authenticity of Ramayana.
The Mahabharata
 Contains 100000 slokas or verses, divided into 18 chapters.

 From religious angle it was written by Rishi Veda Vyasa.
 Its hero is Lord Krishna, the incarnation of God and appeared in the universe to protect
the good and annihilate the evils.
 In further study and pensive analysis of style, language, and materials it reveals that it
was not the work of one author. It is obvious because in the beginning, it was not so
voluminous, later fresh materials were added and finally it came to the present form.
 According to sources, Mahabharata arrived at present shape not earlier than 4th century
AD – but the events taken place were many centuries earlier.
 According to Indian source, Kurukshetra war fought around 1500 BC.
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 Incidentally, unlike Ramayana, the Mahabharata has exposed the struggle and conflict
among the Aryans and proved that the Aryans were war loving people and not hesitant to
invite a war for a greater cause.
 The historicity of Mahabharata is also have different views between Indian and European
Historians – according to West its seems as imagination but according to Indian it has
historical value. According to them its a store house of the socio-political and religious
life of the people of that period.
 Mahabharatha is regarded as the biggest epic of the world.
 Its literary and philosophical value are immeasurable.
 The moral and ethical values ably portrayed in this literature are good examples to the
successive generations.
 Bhagavat Gita is the concluding part of Mahabharatha.
Bhagavat Gita
 Simply known as Gita, which is a part of Mahabharata, but frequently treated as a

freestanding text.
 According to Hinduism it is a revealed scripture which is represents the words and
messages of God – So it is known as „song of God.‟
 According to sources it composed during the period between 5th and 2nd century BC.
 It is in a form of dialogue between Lord Krishna and Arjuna, in the middle of the battle
field of Kurushetra war.
 When the two armies of Kauravas and Pandavas stood face to face, Arjuna hesitated to
table arms against his kith and kin. Then Lord Krishna offered divine advise to Arjuna,
which is depicted in the Gita.
 It contains the germs of all forms and systems of Indian religious thought.
 It has 700 verses which is divided into 18 chapters, which can be grouped into three
sections or books.
I. The first deals with Karmayoga – the path of work – insistence upon action.
II. The second is Jnanayoga – the path of knowledge – insistence is upon the knowledge
of the self.
III. The third discusses Bhaktiyoga – the path of love and devotion – insistence is on
worship and love towards the one Supreme God. Jnana and Karma is also
harmonised with Bhakti.
 Gita advocates, the union of soul with God can achieve only through these Karma, Jnana
and Bhakti.
 In addition to these three aspects, the another thread is Raja yoga, the path of meditation,
which insists on self control, poise and tranquility.
 Bgavath Gita also preaches the doctrine of divine incarnation and non-violence – but at
the same time, Gita resists violently to the evil, which is according to the circumstances.
 It holds a great reverence in India and got an honourable rank in world literature.
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 There were a lot of commentaries and analysation came and each school of philosophy in
India has found in it the source of their metaphysical system.
Varnasrama Dharma (Indian Caste System)
Varnasrama Dharma was one of the social institutions of the caste system prevalent in the
Vedic period, which is also considered as one of the legacy or contribution of the Aryans.
The caste system was the grading of people into different groups which based upon
differences of occupational functions.
Varnasrama Dharma is a social doctrine which is considered as the conception of the life in
one sense peculiarly Aryan. It was a social conception by virtue of which the life was divided
into four periods of stages of life.
a. Brahmacharya
b. Grihastha
c. Vanaprastha
d. Sannyasa
 Everyone must go through these four fold stages of life.

 No aspect of human desire or function is overlooked there.
 It also makes an attempt to combine materiality with spirituality; worldly success with
spiritual excellence
 The excellence which sought can realize only these 4 stages.
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3. BUDDHISM
The 6th century BC witnessed a great religious ferment in the world. It was during this age
that in a spiritual and moral unrest emerged in society. Consequently, reformers all over the
world raised their voice against the existing religious order and endeavored to reconstruct it
on a new basis.
It was an age when people in India were distinguished with old philosophical dogmas and
they urged for simple methods of worship. New leaders of thought and religious sprang up
into vigorous activities and gave a new orientation to life in India. It was an era of revolt – an
age of protest against the old order and ritualistic form of religion, the absolute power of
priest class etc. It preached pure individualism and spiritualization. It discarded the principle
of inequality and injustice; it upheld the value of human intellect and its freedom; it stood for
man and woman to achieve their salvation as human beings. The thinkers of the new
movements were pure intellectualists or philosophers. Thus, so many spiritual leaders
developed among themselves who were wandered teachers and ascetics and who denounced
the Vedic practices and Brahmanic rituals, and argued that Right conduct is the only way to
get out of the meshes of Karma and Samskara. Greatest of these wandered teachers were two
Kshatriya princes, Vardhamana Mahavir and Gautama Buddha. Their philosophical
ideologies took the shape of a reforming movement which is known as Jainism and
Buddhism respectively. Both of them protested against the corruption which crept into
Hinduism.
So we may consider Buddhism and Jainism as a reformation movement of Hinduism. Both

adopted and followed some aspects of pre-existing religious systems.
Life of Buddha
 Gautama or Siddhartha born in 563 BC in Lumbini (Nepal) in Sakya Kshatriya clan near
Kapilavasthu.
 Father Suddhodhana (chief of clan), mother Maya (Princess of Koliyas clan).
 The site of his nativity is marked by the Rummindei Pillar of Asoka
 When Maya died, he was brought by his aunt and step mother Prajapati Gautami, he lived
in great pleasure and he was unaware of the sorrows of life.
 From his childhood itself he showed signs of contemplative turn of mind.
 Married to Yashodhara, (Princess of Sakya noble)
 But the sight of an old man, a sick man, a dead body and an ascetic intensified his deep
hatred for the world and made him realise the hallowness of worldy pleasures.
 He was disturbed by the eternal problems of life, its suffering, disease, death and
immortality and he felt powerfully attracted by the calm serenity of the passionless
recluse.
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 After the birth of a son named Rahula he left his home and kingdom in 533 BC at the age
of 29, as a wandering ascetic in search of truth. This departure is known as the Great
Renunciation.
 For six continuous years he lived as a homeless ascetic, seeking instruction under two
Brahmin religious teachers. (First was Alara Kalama, taught him the technique of
meditation at Vaisali, and the second was Uddaka or Ramaputta who taught him at
Rajagriha) and he visited many places.
 He made severe penances, most rigid austerities and made fruitless efforts to find the
truth but didn‟t found any satisfaction.
 He then gave up penances took a bath in river Niranjana (modern Lilajan) and sat under a
pipal tree at modern Bodh Gaya.
 Here he attained the supreme knowledge and insight at the age of 35.
 Revelation came to him that Great peace was within his own heart and he must seek it
there. This is known as the Great enlightenment or Nirvana and since then he became
known as the Buddha (the enlightened One) or Tathaqat (one who attained the truth).
 Then he proceeded to the Deer park of Sarnath near Banaras where he gave his first
religious discourse (dharma chakra parivarthana) as a result of which five disciples joined
him.
 For the next fourty-five years he roamed about as a wandering teacher and proclaimed his
teachings to the Princes and peasants alike in Oudh, Bihar and some adjoining districts.
 He laid the foundation of the Buddhist church or order of Monks (sangha).
 Preaching and delivering sermons for salvation and making conversations, he at last died
at the age of eighty in 486 BC at Kusinagar in UP.
 Main disciples of Buddha were Sariputta, Mogallana (ascetics of Rajagriha), others were
Ananda (his cousin and chief disciple), Kassapa or Kashyapa (his most learned disciple),
Upali (the barber) and the rich youth Yasa. Kings like Prasenjit of Kosala and Bimbisara
and Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his doctrines and became his disciples.
 After the death of Buddha, his disciples held their first council, at Rajagriha, near
Magadha, and organised the remebered teachings of the Master; it orally transmitted until
reduced to writing on 80 BC these teachings preserved on collections, called Tripitaka –
literally three baskets – (pali canon).
They were:
(1) Vinayapitaka (it deals with basic Buddhist rules in Detail)
(2) Suttapitaka (it deals with conduct of the monks)
(3) Adhidammapitaka (it deals with Buddha‟s psychology and ethics)
Teachings of Buddha
 Gautam Buddha never endeavoured to establish a new religion or creed. Neither he talked
of codes and conventions, nor laws and rites.
 He indicated a new way of life – the virtous path by treading which one could attain
deliverance from birth and deaths.
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 He advocated not a set of doctrines or dogmas but a rational scheme of spiritual

development.
 Simple goodness of spirit, deed and conduct is the basis of his teachings.
 He rejected the infalliability of the Vedas, condemned the bloody animal sacrifices,
protested against the complicated, elaborate and meaningless ritual, challenged the caste-
system and the priestly supremacy and denied or doubted the existence of a supreme
creative spirit.
 Self-Culture is the key note of his teachings so we could say that Buddhism therefore was
more a social then religious revolution. It taught the code of practical ethics and laid
down the democratic principle of social equality.
Four Noble Truths
 Buddha preached his followers the four “noble truths”, they were:
(1) The world is full of sorrows (dukksha)
(2) The cause of sorrow is desire (trishna)
(3) If desires are conquered, all sorrows can be removed
(4) The only way this can be done is by following the eight fold path.
The Eight Fold Path (Ashtangamarga)
 The eight fold path comprises:

(1) Proper vision (the knowledge of four truths which explained in sermon)
(2) Right aim (renounce pleasure, to do no harm to others etc.)
(3) Right speech (abstain from lying, slander, abuse, harsh words etc.)
(4) Proper action (refrain from taking what is not given or abstain carnal excesses)
(5) Proper livelihood (abstain any type of forbidden mode of living)
(6) Right effort (suppressing the rising of evil conditions and to eradicate those who
support evil.)
(7) Correct awareness (remain self possessed and careful and maintain body and
spirit for that)
(8) Meditation (or contemplation; it is the crown of all these eight.)
 According to Buddha‟s teachings any who follows this path, considered as in the „middle
path‟ (madhyama Pratipad), would attain salvation irrespective of his social background.
 This eight fold path, teaches men how to live a moral and religious life.
 According to Buddha, it is the path, through which we could attain final bliss or nirvana.
Nirvana means „blowing out‟ or extinction of desire or trishna. It is deliverance or
freedom from re-birth.
 He mainly stressed on purity of conduct, truthfulness, love and benevolence, obedience to
parents and respect for the elders, not drinking, charity and kindness and mercy to all
living beings.
 Another doctrine on which Buddha laid great emphasis is the law of Karma. According to
it the condition of man in this life and the next (rebirth), is depends upon his own actions.
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 Another prominent feature of his teachings is Ahimsa (non-violence). According to him,

the spirit of love is more important than good deeds.
 Buddha also explain doctrines concerning atman (soul or ego) and five skandhas or
components of the universe. They were:
(1) Form and matter (rupa)
(2) Sensations or feelings (vedana)
(3) Perceptions of understanding (sanna)
(4) Psychic disposition or will (samkhara)
(5) And consciousness (vinnana)
 Buddha had two kind of disciples – monks (bhikshu) and lay worshippers (upasikas). The
former were organised into sangha or congregation.
Growth and Rise of Buddhism
 The monks or bhikshus organised into sangha or congregation, the number of which
increased to a large number with the spread of Buddhism.
 From the sources it is evident that the scriptures of Buddhism grew by a long process of
development and accretion, perhaps over several centuries.
 Monasteries were constructed to give suitable accommodation to the monks and the nuns
for carrying on their studies and meditation. Gradually monasteries developed into
academic centres for producing the right type of men, well-grounded in religious and
philosophy, to propagate the teachings of Buddhism.
 After the death of Buddha many sermons occurred under the leadership of his disciples.
I. Sermon was at Rajagriha, Magadhan Capital in which the disciples recited the
tripitaka.
II. Sermon is said to have been held at Vaisali, 100 years after the death of Buddha.
During that time, the order divided into 2 sections. i.e.
a. Orthodox Sthaviravadins (believers in the teachings of the elders)
gradually the cult is known as Hinayana cult, and
b. Mahasanghikas (members of the Great Community) became a cult called
Mahayana cult.
III. On third council, numerous such differences appeared – it held at Pataliputra,

during the time of Ashoka, which resulted in the expulsion of many heretics and
the establishment of the Sthaviravada school as orthodox.
 Meanwhile great changes took place in the constitution of Buddhism also. Some modern
authorities believed that the Buddha had no intention of founding a new religion, and
never looked on his doctrine as distinct from the popular cults of the time. But it is clear
that 200 years after the death of Buddha, Buddhism became a distinct religion.
 Soon after Buddha‟s death many communities of monks gave up the practice of constant
travel except in the rainy season, and settled permanently on the outskirts of towns and
villages. Often near the Caityas. With time many of these little monasteries grew in size
and importance.
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Growth of Buddhism under Ashoka
 Ashoka was the Mauryan emperor, who succeeded his father Bindusara after defeating
his brothers in a war of succession.
 This war of succession was for four years between 272-268 BC and after securing his
position Ashoka crowned formally on 268 BC.
 The most important event of Ashoka‟s reign seems to have been the victorious war with
Kalinga (260 BC).
 The result of this was so much pathethic and horrible that a number innocents massacred
in this incident. It changed the mind of Ashoka and he dramatically converted to
Buddhism immediately after the Kalinga war.
 But according some other sources like Bhabra inscription of Ashoka, it was only after a
period of more that two years that he became an ardent supporter of Buddhism, under the
influence of a Buddhist monk, Upagupta. In this edict, he states his acceptance of the
Buddhist creed, Dhamma and the Sangha.
 As mentioned earlier the third Buddhist council was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra with
Moggaliputta Tissia presiding. But there is no mentioning about Ashoka in this event‟s
any inscriptions.
 By Ashoka‟s time, India was covered with viharas, which were both monasteries and
temples. Buddhism borrowed and adapted much from the popular beliefs of the time. Its
simple ritual was mainly based on the cult of Caityas or sacred spots. It was the Caitya
that Buddhism made its own.
 So many Buddhist stupas rose up all over India under Ashoka – Ashoka unearthed the
ashes of Buddha from their original resting places and divided them rearing stupas for
them all over India.
 The pipal, Bodhi tree planted near the stupas to commemorate Buddha‟s enlightenment.
The original Bodhi tree, under which Buddha sat, became an object of pilgrimage, and
cuttings of it were carried as far as Ceylon.
 Ashoka sent his son (Mahendra) and daughter (Sanghamitra) as Buddhist missionaries to
Ceylon.
 Thus with the support of Ashoka, Buddhism greatly expanded, spreading throughout
India and to Ceylon.
 Ashoka also visited the holy places where Buddha born, where he gained enlightenment,
where he preached his first sermon, where he died etc. as a pilgrim.
 The old stupas were enlarged and beautified with carved railings, terraces and gateways.
 We could find a lots of major and minor edicts of Ashoka which depicts his attachment to
Buddhism.
Ashoka’s Dhamma
 Influenced by the Buddhist and Hindu thought Ashoka developed a new religious
philosophy of his own which is called Dhamma. It is a way of life, code of conduct and
set of principle.
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 The concept of Dhamma was in the sense of law and social order, which was highly
influenced by the Buddhist principles – mainly due to his close relation with Sangha.
 Dhamma was fully influenced by Buddhism but not purely a Buddhist ideology – it was
his own.
 Later division i.e. to Hinayana ( the original Buddhism – the narrow way) and Mahayana
(the great way – later developed).
Decay of Buddhism in India
Although Buddhism gained popularity among the masses, ii was never able to destroy
Hinduism, which continued to exist even when its rival Buddhism was at its height. Later on,
when Buddhism deteriorated, Hinduism rose to a new vigour under the patronage of the
Hindu monarchs especially the Guptas and Rajputs, and Buddhism began to decline. This
process continued for centuries together till Hinduism recovered. The old strength, vigour and
status of Buddhism completely disappeared from India, the land of its birth and it was
eclipsed by Hinduism.
The following were the main causes for this decline:

1. The inherent defects of Buddhism: Buddhism started as a simple faith – but during
the course of time it became much formal and completed. Its strict discipline became
a burden for its followers who raved for an escape from it. Besides Buddhism ignored
God, which turned the people against it because of its atheistical tendency (atheist
means one who do not believe in God).
2. Deterioration of Buddhism: During the cause of time some features of Brahmanism
introduced into Buddhism, which was protested by Buddha earlier – The rise of
Mahayanists started the worship of Buddha and the image of Buddha and many
Bodhisatvas were worshipped everywhere and built great temples to them endowed
with considerable wealth and ornaments. Then so many gods and Goddesses
introduced and worshipped by Buddhists. New rules and practices emerged in
Buddhism which is contrary to the ethics of Buddhism and they indulge in many vices
in support of this rules. This phase of Buddhism is known as Tantric or Vajrayana
Buddhism. Thus so many esoteric practices, demonstration of psychic powers,
worship of hundred of gods and Goddesses etc. changed the trace of the old religion
during 12th century BC. This Tantric or Vajrayana Buddhism carved the foundation
of Buddhism by destroying all moral strength and it gradually led to the
disappearance of Buddhism in India.
3. Degeneration of the Sangha: In the course time many vices grew up in the Buddhist
Sangha, which was considered as the backbone of the Buddha development. The
introduction of Tantric Buddhism helped to destroy the ethical spirit of Buddhism and
the luxurious facilities, poisoned the spiritual power of the Buddhists. The life of
renunciation and commandments of Buddha disappeared. As corruption crept into the
Sangha and the Viharas, the Buddhist monks who were the leaders of the whole
Buddhist community lost their reputation for good character and other admirable
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qualities. The whole foundation of their prestige and power vanished and
consequently Buddhism lost Sanga, the greatest engine of their propaganda.
4. Loss of Royal Patronage: With the help of the royal devotees (kings and authorities)
that Buddhism could rise to the status of a world religion. The Buddhist monarchs like
Asoka, Kanishka and Harsha had mobilised the resources of the state in the cause of
Buddhism. But after their death, Buddhism couldn‟t find any royal patronage, so
many Buddhist monks and followers thus lost their support. They migrated to other
frontier countries of India like Nepal, Tibet etc. which led to the hastened downfall of
Buddhism.
5. The Assimilative power of Hinduism: It means the remarkable power of Hinduism to
absorb many other religious forms. i.e. it possesses enough capacity to imbibe alien
religious beliefs, doctrines and cultures. Gradually Brahmanism incorporated the best
of Buddhism. So it could attract the foreigners like Huns and Sakas, who were readily
absorbed to Hindu fold. Consequently, Hinduism continued to gain converts, while
Buddhism declined due to its degeneration.
6. Brahmanic Revival: The great set back to Buddhism came from the Brahmanic
revival with the advent of the Gupta rulers to political power, a great revival of
Brahmanical Hinduism took place. The Gupta emperors were zealous Hindus, and
patronized literally the Brahmans, their religion and their language – Sanskrit. Under
their active royal support, Brahmanism regained its old power, and led a strong
offensive against Buddhism. From the 8th to 11th centuries the Rajput Princes who
governed most of the Northern India were not favourable inclined to Buddhism.
Being a warrior race the creed of non-violence did not appeal to them. They joined the
power – cult of Sati-Puja of Hinduism. During this time, the Brahman thinkers openly
demonstrated the superiority of Hinduism. Thus Hinduism began to recover its
popularity and Buddhism began to lost its hold over the masses.
7. The Muslim invasion and their persecutions: The Muslim invasion was also a reason
for the downfall of Buddhism. When Buddhism was started decaying the Turks
invaded India and destroyed great Buddhist temples and monasteries, including those
of Nalanda. The main motive of Turks was wealth but the Buddhist temples and
monasteries never possessed much wealth. So they destroyed it and started
persecuting and attacking them. Under Muslim persecution, many Buddhist
monasteries and monks were destroyed and many were forced to flee from India to
safer boarder countries such as Nepal and Tibet. Buddhist in India were thus
abandoned and left without guides. This invasion may be considered as the real or
immediate cause for the deterioration, degeneration and rottenness of Buddhism and
Buddhist Sangha.
In course of time many returned to their old religion, Hinduism, and who were regarded
inferior or suffered from social and economic tyranny of the higher castes were induced to
embrace Islam. Thus around in the 14th century Buddhism disappeared from Northern India.
For few years it continued in some places but gradually it completely disappeared from the
land of its birth.
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Revival of Buddhism in India
Recently some attempts held to revive Buddhism in India, which was made by Maha Bodhi
Society of India founded by Late Devamitta Dharmapala. The main Buddhist religious
centres were restored and new rest houses for Buddhist monks and pilgrims, hospital, school
etc. were constructed by it. New monasteries or Vihars constructed at Kusinara, Sravati,
Calcutta etc. Now its many branches started in different parts of India.
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8. JAINISM
 The word Jain and Jainism derived from the Sanskrit word „Ji‟ means „to conquer.‟
 So Jainism is considered as the “Religion of the Conquerors” (Jinas).
 Vardhana, popularly known as Mahavira is generally regarded as the founder father of
Jainism in India.
 But according to orthodox Jaina faith, the teachers of their faith are called Tirthankas –
there are altogether 24 Tirthankaras.
 The first twenty two of them are practically obscure and unknown to history – the first
Tirthankara, Rishaba is considered as the founder of Jainism, but some considered
twentythird Tirthankara, Parshvanath as the real founder of Jaina religion.
 We couldn‟t got much information about the first 22 Tirthankaras who were so legendary
in character. However, about the last two Tirthankaras, Parshvanath and Mahavira, we
have ample records.
 Parsvanath, lived 250 years before Mahavir, son of king Asvasen of Banaras, abandoned
royal state in favour of spiritual life – finally he acquired the Kaivalya Gyana, the
profound knoweldge. He preached Jainsim for about 70 years and died at the age of 100.
The parents of Mahavir also followed this religion. So he was much influenced by
Jainism in his youth.
Life of Vardhamana Mahavir
 The story of Mahavir is so much similar to that of Buddha but had a very different history
from Buddhism.
 The history of Jainism is less interesting than that of Buddhism, and though it was never
so important, it survived in the land of its birth, where it still has some two million
adherents, mostly well-to-do merchants.
 Vardhamana Mahavir was born in about 599 BC at Kundagrama near Vaishali in modern
Bihar, in a rich Kshatriya family.
 His father Siddhartha was the head of the Jnatrika clan.
 His mother Trishla was the sister of the Licchavi chief and ruler of Vaishali Chetaka,
whose daughter was married to Bimbisara, the king of Magadha.
 Thus Mahavir was related to the eminent ruling dynasty of Magadha.
 Though he was educated as a prince, and married to a princess named Jashoda, and had a
daughter, his real interest lay in the quest for salvation.
 At first he followed the ascetic practices propagated by the 23rd Thirthankara Parswanath
which is called as “Nirgranthas” (free from bonds).
 At the age of 30, when his parents were dead, he left his home and became an ascetic.
 He wandered from place to place continuously for twelve years in search of knowledge.
 He indulged in hard penance and self mortification, begging, mediating, etc. thus he
became mere a skeleton.
 People considered him as mad and avoided him but he remained firm in his mission
without losing patience.
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 During one of his vists in Nalanda, he came in contact with an ascetic called Gosala
Makkhaliputra, who was so much impressed by him and joined with him – but after six
years due to some disagreements, Gosala seperated from it and established a new
religious order called Ajivikas.
 For 13 years, Vardhamana lived the life of self mortification, severe austerities and deep
meditation. Finally at the age of 42 he acquired the Kaivalya Gyana, the highest
knowledge and was identified as Mahavira means „The Great Hero.‟
 He soon gained great reputation, got the title conqueror (jina), and in the rest of his life,
about 30 years, he roamed from place to place and spent on preaching the new faith,
better known as Jainism.
 The new religion was eagerly embraced by a large number of people including so many
royals.
 During his life time itself, Jainism established widely in Magadha, Midhila, Anga and
Kosala.
 He paid frequent visits to the kings, Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, who honoured him highly.
 In 527 BC, at the age of 72, he breathed his last at Pava near Rajagriha, the Magadhan
capital.
 He was a contemporary of Gautam Buddha and survived him by many years.
 During this time, the number of his disciples had reached over 14000.
 He established a religious order which was open to all, whether it is male or female.
 He accepted the teachings of Parsvanath as the basis of his faith.
 He organised the community into a classes: monks and house holders.
Main teachings of Jainism
According to the Jaina literature the main teachings of Jainism are follows:
1) No belief in the existence of God: Mahavira never believed the existence of any God and
he did not believe that God created this world or excercises any control over it. According
to him God is only the biggest, noblest and perfect manifestation of all the powers latent
in a man. It is a man who makes his destiny.
2) Theory of Karma and transmigration of soul: According to him Karma decides the fate
of a man i.e. according to good and bad deeds, a man suffers or prospers. It means the
good or bad works practiced by a man in his past life is responsible for the consequences
faced by a man. Therefore, the followers of Jainism try to do good works for all living
beings so that their next birth may be a forward march toward salvation.
3) No faith in the Vedas and the supremacy of the Brahmana: Mahavira had no faith in the
vedas also rejected the authority or supremacy of the Brahmins. He recommended a very
high moral code and ascetic way of life including self mortification. According to him
man‟s ultimate goal should be attainment of Nirvana. He opened door for salvation for
everybody without any discrimination.
4) Ahimsa: the vital or most emphasised doctrine of Jainism is considered as the Ahimsa or
non-injury to anyone. The followers of Jainism are taught that all objects, animate or
inanimate, possess life or endowed with various degrees of consciousness. They feel pain
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if any injury or harm is caused on them. Love, kindness and compassion for all living
creatures of the world are the prime considerations. They even take care not to injure
plants and trees. Jainism is strictly against the idea of animal sacrifice in Yajnas.
5) Hard Penance and Self Sacrifice: The Jainas believe in hard penance and all kinds of
self injuries to their bodies. They consider starvation death a big virtue.
6) No faith in Yajna, sacrifice and ritualism: Jainism completely rejected the Vedic rituals
and the supremacy and oppression of the Brahmans. As a staunch believer of Ahimsa,
Jainism vehemently criticized sacrifices, yajnas and rituals widely prevalent in the Vedic
age.
7) No faith against Casteism: Jainism tried to abolish all kinds of caste barriers by
establishing the principles of equality, class-less society, and recognition to human rights.
Indeed, the liberal doctrine of Jainism acted as a substantial relief for the society who
were disgusted with the social evils like inequality, untouchability and denial of human
rights which were the products of the caste system.
8) Attainment of Salvation: The chief aim of the followers of Jainism is to attain Moksha or
salvation. They firmly believe that salvation can be achieved if three jewels, i.e. the right
faith, right knowledge and right conduct are strictly followed.
Development of Jainism
 Mahavir successfully founded the Jain church – his severe asceticism and simple
doctrines attracted many followers.
 He had eleven close disciples or apostles known as Ganadharas or “Heads of Schools.”
Only one of them Arya Sudharman survived Mahavir and became the head of Jain church
after his death. His successor was Jambu. These heads were called as Theras. After three
generations the Jain church was ruled by two Theras – Sambhutavijaya and Bhadrabahu
and thus the Jain church was divided into two sects. (1)The Diganbaras or orthodox
followers of Mahavira who preferred self-torture, followed nudity etc. under
Sambhitavijaya. (2)Svetambaras or the followers of Badrabahu who wore white dress.
Who was the author of Kalpasutra which is a main book regarding the principles and
rules of Jain Church.
 There were two Jain council held after the death of Mahavira, first on 300 BC at
Pataliputra, which was under Jaina head Sambhutavijaya.
 The second council was held at Vallabhi on 512 AD.
 Gradually further more splits took place between both Digambaras and Swetambaras.
 Whatever its a wide development took place in whole country.
 Many royal patronage, for eg:
a. Udayn – Successor of Ajatasatru developed to Jain
b. Nandas – were probably Jain
c. Chandragupta Maurya – contemporary of Bhadrabahu, he joined with Badrabahu
etc.
 During the Muslim period itself Jainism continued to flourish – also received patronage
from Mughal emperors like Akbar.
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 But later a decline occured.

 Presently population of Jains in India is nearly 13 lakhs distributed in all over the country
like Rajputana, Gujarat, some district of south and central India.
 Now they are playing more attention to reform of society through spread of education,
revival of their faith, construction and repair of Jaina temples, publication of ancient
literature etc.
Contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture
We can classify the contribution of Jainism in four different fields. They were:
1) Political field
2) Social field
3) Religious field
4) Cultural field
 Political field: Ahimsa put forward by Jainism helped to bring peace, it inspired people –
Kshatriya recognised the values of Ahimsa and futility of war fare.
 Social field: Jainism played a significant role in this. The principle of brotherhood, social
equality and recognisation of human rights attracted people – society became free from
class distinction.
 Religious field: Abolished worthless sacrifices, rituals and yajnas. It indirectly helped
Hinduism to discard it many ills. It also helped people to avoid unnecessary religious
expenses. Thus religion became so simple. Many charitable institutions emerged – many
Jainist followers emerged for public cause.
 Cultural field: The greatest contribution of Jainism in society was on the cultural field,
especially in Literature and Architecture.
Literature
 Jains played a very important role in the development of languages of India. Sanskrit and
Pali were languages, medium of sacred writings and preachings of Brahmins and
Buddhists respectively.
 But Jains utilized the prevailing spoken languages of different times at different places in
the country for their religious propaganda and the preservation of the sacred knowledge.
 Their religious literature was written in Prakrit which was finely developed by the Jainists
and gave a literary shape to this language. Even Mahavir used a mixed dialect called
Ardha-Magadhi for the easy understanding of people.
 His teachings classified into 12 books called Srutangas also wrote in this language.
 Gradually a rich literature produced, it gradually led to the emergence of vernacular
languages like Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi etc.
 The earliest literature in Kanaruse is also of Jain influence.
 The Jains have also written some of their scriptures in Sanskrit.
 There were lots of books written by the preachers of Jainism highlighting the doctrine of
religion.
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 A part from the religious importance, it also has historical significance. It helped the
historians to reconstruct the ancient Indian history.
Architecture
The followers of Jainism displayed a great interest in constructing countless temples

throughout the country, especially during its glorious period 11th and 12th centuries. During
this time they erected stupas like Buddhist in honour of the saints with decorated gateways,
stone umbrellas, elaborate carved pillars and abundant statues. Some examples have been
discovered at Mathura, Bundhelkhand and Central India are full of Jain Statues.
The gigantic statues of Bahubalin called homateswara at Sravana Belagola and Karkal in
Mysore are among one of the wonders in India. The former, 70 feet high, carved out of a
mass granite, standing at the top of a hill was erected in 984 by Chamundaraya, the minister
of the Ganga King Rachamalla. There were so many other like Jain caves in Udaigiri hills
Ellora in Andhra. Hathingumpa caves in Orissa. Jain tower at Chittor in Rajasthan, the Jain
temple at mount Abu in Rajasthan were some examples of the great specimens of Jains
architecture.
In short Jainism was undoubtedly older than Buddhism – though it never became a dominant
religion in India, nor spread abroad, yet it has ever remained as a powerful sect in the
country. Ujjain was the centre of Jainism in 1st century BC, in 4th BC a group of Jaina
monks under Bhadrabahu travelled to Deccan to preach the doctrine of Jainism.
Sravanabelagola in Karnataka became the centre of Jainism during the reign of the Kushan
Kings. But it failed to spread far like Buddhism.
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5. REVIVAL OF HINDU RELIGION AND CULTURE
We have learned that the complicated and expensive practices of Hinduism, diverted people
against it and gradually they showed interest in Buddhism and Jainism and converted to these
religions. But the content of Hinduism was always there, when Buddhism and Jainism
flourished in India. These religions couldn‟t destroy Hinduism completely, because Hinduism
is such a religion which emerged in the heart of Indian History and Culture. Later gradual
disintegration of Buddhism and Jainism led to the reawakening of Hindus and of course
Buddhism and Jainism have some responsibility over the reawakening of Hinduism because
they make it aware of the evils of Hinduism. The political situation of India is also
responsible for the revival of Hinduism in India.
 In reality, the revival of Hinduism started from the Sunga dynasty under Pusyamitra
Sanga and passing through several stages it reached its zenith during the Gupta period.
 The revivalism of Hinduism is considered as the most striking feature and greatest
achievement during the Gupta period.
 During this time Hinduism gained back its lost glory and ground and reached its pinnacle.
 Though Gupta rulers were great patrons of Hinduism, yet Buddhism and Jainism
survived. But actually the Brahmanic revivalism gradually led to the decline of
Buddhism.
 But truely the co-existence of religions proves the religious tolerance of Gupta rulers and
there is no religious persecution.
 Obviously the royal patronage helped Hinduism to revive the Gupta rulers were staunch
supporters of Hinduism – they initiated to eradicate evils of Hinduism and tried to make it
popular.
 According to historical sources, it was the two dynasties Naga and Vakatakas that
influenced Guptas for their attitude towards Hinduism.
 Before the advent of Guptas, a feeling of nationalism emerged among the native dynasties
and clans, which led to the decline of Kushan, one major foreign dynasty of that time.
 This national movement was started by Nagas (3rd century) continued by Vakatakas and
concluded by imperial Guptas.
 Thus foreign rule in India was replaced by indigenous rule – influence of foreign art like
Gandhara art shaken Brahmanism revived – use of Pali and Prakrit discarded in favour of
Sanskrit.
 It was the Naga rulers who started this propaganda against the Kushana rule – they were
the worshippers of Hindu God and patrons of Sankrit scholars and Vedic religion.
 Vakatakas also tried for the establishment of Hindu sovereignty and reviving Hindu
religion.
 Later these two dynasties eclipsed by the Guptas – i.e. Guptas became the supreme power
but still they regained their position.
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Guptas (300 – 500 AD)
 During the 4th century AD Gupta Empire sprang up i.e. the centre of political interest
once again shifted to Pataliputra in Magadha – it is founded by Chandragupta I.
 Another great emperors in this dynasty were Samudragupta, Chandragupta II (assumed
the title of Vikramaditya), Kumaragupta, Skandagupta etc.
 The early mentioned nationalistic feeling led to the expulsion of foreign rules in India by
the native dynasties like Naga and Vakatakas, later carried out by Guptas.
 Chandragupta II, defeated the Saka dynasty of Malway and Saurashtra. Thus swept away
the last vestiges of the of the foreign rule in India.
 This calmness led to the revival of Hindu imperialism and thus confusion and
disintegration disappeared in the society and unity established.
Revival of Hindu Religion under Guptas
 As mentioned earlier the influence of Nagas and Vakatakas were one of the responsible
factor for the Pro-Hindu attitude of Guptas.
 The worship of old Vedic gods and the revival of the Asvamedha sacrifices and other
Vedic rites (rituals) which had been started by Nagas and Vakatakas found further favour
with Guptas.
 Brahmanism revived – Buddhism lost its position of state religion due to the lack of royal
patronage – it became a mere sect.
 Guptas also tried to eradicate the evils of Hinduism and to make it popular.
 The idea of Bhakti and idol worship brought a new dimension for Hinduism.
 The followers of Hinduism were divided into two sects: (1) Vaishnavas and (2) Saivas.
Most Gupta rulers were followers of Vaishnavas. Saivas worshipped in the form of Linga,
Nandi, Trishula etc.
 New progressive ideas emerged in Hinduism like the idea of purification, combination of
old and new religions etc. which generated an encouraging impact and succeeded in
winning the heart of the bulk of the population.
 The literary and cultural renaissance which began under the Vakatakas flourished under
the Guptas.
 The arts of architecture, sculpture and painting which had been encouraged by the
Vakatakas flourished on large schools in the time of Guptas.
 The influence of Greeco Buddhist schools of Gandhara art lost its influence. Instead the
scences and stories of Hindu gods and avataras were used as the subject both in sculpture
and painting.
 It means the contribution of Guptas towards art, architecture, painting and music
enhanced the revival of Hinduism because in all these fields the influence of Hinduism is
visible.
 Thus, a great Hinduist renaissance movement started in which full developments and
achievements in the field of art and literature. So this period is called as the Golden Age
of Hinduism and the period of Hindu Renaissance.
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 At the same time the foreign relation and the expansion took place during this period.
 This Gupta period is mainly considered as a period of Hindu florescence of Hindu revival
not as an overall Renaissance.
 The Guptas could establish a wide expanded empire by defeating and destroying so many
foreign dynasties which they achieved by arousing a nationalist feelings in every aspects
like – political, social, religious, literacy, artistic and economic – the Guptas gained this
feeling by reviving the Hinduist feeling and thus established the Hindu rule.
 While considering all these aspects, one notable point is that though Hinduism flourished
in this period, the Guptas never tried for any type of religious persecutions or forced
conversions.
 Buddhism and Jainism also equally prospered here without any interruption, which
proves the religious toleration of the Gupta rulers.
 According to Fahi-en the Buddhist were even supported and patronised by Gupta
sovereigns.
 It is obvious that during the time of Guptas, the florescence of Hindu genius and the
Hindu culture occurred, rather than Hindu religion. So it is not a renaissance but a
florescence.
Social Organisation
After the revival of Hinduism the old social organization continued from the Gupta period
onwards. The Varna system and the ashram system continued. The society was divided into
four varnas.
1. Brahman
2. Kshatriya
3. Vaishya
4. Sudras
This social classification was mainly according to the profession i.e.
1. Brahmins – priests
2. Kshatriyas – Kings, warriors, administrators
3. Vaishyas – traders, bankers
4. Shudras – artisans, labourers and agriculturalists
This caste system developed under the Vedic age was re-established during this time of
Guptas which again resulted in the Brahmanic ascendancy. The people who were not
included in this caste system like foreigners, nomads, forest tribes, chandalas (who dealt with
the disposal of dead), were considered as untouchables.
 According to Bhakti school, the view is that the divisions were originally created by
Krishna.
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 It also have relation with the re-birth and transmigration of soul. i.e. the deed of one
person in one birth lead one shudra to a Brahman in the next birth.
 The records of Fahi-en, (who visited in 400 AD), were one of the main sources regarding
this subject.
 The advantages or contribution of this caste system:
a. Through this, a rigid social structure established.
b. Preservation of order in society through the use of institutional stratification of
social groups.
c. The Varna system, which arouses a feeling of bias, and unequality led to the
creation of new ways for the easy achievement of spiritual goal, which led to the
development of Bhakti movement.
d. The caste system played an important role in shaping economic activities (it
ensure division of labour).
 But later what happened was that the caste system lost its purity i.e. it was no more
absolute much later. For example, the renowned Gupta dynasty, were from Vaishya caste
rather than the Kshatriya later. Many later rulers came after Guptas were also from
different castes, like Madurai Kayaks were Bailys (traders).
The Four Varnas
1. Brahmins: - Priests
 Occupied high position in society
 Even rulers respected them
 Chief priest was the advisor
 They practiced main religious acts, religious ceremonies etc.
2. Kshatriyas: - kings, warriors administrators.
 Next to Brahmins, they occupied higher position
 Mainly rulers, enlisted themselves in the army
3. Vaishyas: - traders, bankers
 They were identified as business community
 Engaged in trade and commerce
4. Shudras: - artisans, labourers and agriculturalists
 The lowest cast
 E.g. hunters, fishermen etc.
5. Untouchables: -
 They were outside the caste system
 E.g. foreigners, nomads, forest tribes, chandalas (according to Fahien)
 Untouchability was present in a large form.
 Position of women were considerably deteriorated

 Women had no right
 Child marriage prevalent
 Practice of sati practiced
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 People were vegetarian

 People did not take meat, onion, garlic etc.
 Agriculture was principal occupation
 Feudalism patronised by Guptas.
 Trade and commerce developed.
Shankaracharya
 Veda means knowledge

 The Vedas were Rig-Veda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda
 Vedanta is considered as a spiritual trend, mentioned in the Upanishads, of self-
realization to realize the Brahman
 „anta‟ means „the last.‟ So Vedanta means the concluding portion of Vedas.
 Basic texts of Vedanta are:
1. Upanishads
2. Bhagvad Gita
3. Bhrama Sutra
 These three texts altogether known as prasthanatraya or triple canon of Vedanta
 According to this prasthana traya Vedanta classified into many sub-schools, (i.e.
prasthana traya is the key source of all these schools).
1. Advaita Vedanta
2. Vishishta advaita
3. Dvaita Vedanta
4. Dvaita advaita
5. Shudha advaita
6. Achintya bhedabheda
 Shankaracharya was considered as the founder of the first school, Advaita Vedanta – it is
the most influential and most dominant school – Adaita Vedanta means the non-dualist
approach of Vedanta.
 Shankaracharya, known as Adi Shankara or Adi Shankaracharya (788-820 AD).
 Born on 788 AD, in a Brahmin family of Kalady, a village in Kerala
 His father died while Shankara was very young.
 At early age, he mastered in Vedas and Upanishads
 From a young age, Shankara was inclined towards Sannyasa.
 Then he left Kerala moved towards North India in search of a guru and met Govinda
Bhagavat Pada.
 Then he expounded his Advaita philosophy and for its propagation he started a
philosophical tour throughout India.
 He wanted to eradicate the false doctrines prevalent in Hinduism which misguides the
people and explained the Upanishadic philosophy in support of his Advaita.
 He travelled with his disciples of Maharashtra, Gokarna, Sowrashtra and participated in
many debates and discussions with many Jainist and Hinduist philosophers and defeated
them.
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 He died on 820 AD at Kedaranath, Pala Empire presently at Uttarakhand.

 Later his philosophy continued by Ramanuja, Madhava etc.
 Shankara wrote many Sanskrit works about his Advaita philosophy which is his greatest
contribution.
 His attempt were also considered as the most innovative attempt for the Hindu revivalism,
through which he started a trend which was continued by the later philosophers.
His Philosophy (Advaita Vedanta)
Its Principles
1) Brahman is the only truth : i.e. there is only one absolute non-dual, infinite, eternal,
all pervading Brahman.
2) The word is an illusion : According to this belief all that seen and heard, is not
permanent and therefore is not real, the only permanent thing is Brahman – only
through knowledge that we could see the Brahman.
3) There is ultimately no difference between Brahman and individual self: according
to it the Atman (self) and Brahman are one and without this realization one cannot
achieve liberation.
 As mentioned earlier many philosophical thoughts came, they just followed and
continued the principles of Shankaracharya.
Development in Art and Culture of India
 As mentioned earlier the Gupta period is considered as the “golden era” in Indian Culture
mainly because of the development of art and culture took place in India during this
period.
 Later these developments were carried out by the successing dynasties i.e. Guptas
introduced a trend of art and culture which is fully influenced by Hinduism.
 If we look at the artistic remains of ancient India, it also had a religious nature, which is
once again established in Gupta period.
 The ancient development of art and culture in India is started by the Indus Valley
Civilization which is overlapped by the Aryans in the Vedic society.
 In the Vedic period the literary and intellectual development was really at its height which
witnessed the creation of Vedas, Upanishads etc.
 Later, with the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism, it influence in the field of art,
architecture, literature etc.
 Under Maurya period obviously the Buddha influence was visible in all cultural fields.
 During the time of Guptas, when the revival of Hinduism took place, it obviously led to
the re-establishment of Hindu culture and trends in all artistic and cultural fields. Bhakti
movement has a unique role in this.
 This development was chiefly visible in the field of architecture, literature, education, and
other artistic forms such as painting, dance, sculpture etc.
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Literature
 The Sanskrit language, which was once ignored under the Buddhist and Jain influence,
was patronised during the Gupta period – it gained its early glory.
 It was recognised as the court language and was used in their inscriptions and gradually it
became the main classical language of that time.
 At the same time the Bhakti cult made a great impact on the evolution of regional
languages and literature. Moreover many saintly poets, inspired by this movement,
created great works of literature and thus enriched the regional languages.
 But the position of Sanskrit was highest – Even the Buddhist scholars, especially the
followers of Mahayana cult, began writing their script on Sanskrit – the Jain writers also
switched to Sanskrit, from Pali and Prakrit for their writings. Thus it gradually became
the literary language of North India.
 Great poets, dramatists and grammarians lived in this period. Some of the well-known
scholars who flourished during this time are mentioned below:
1. Kalidas: greatest Sanskrit poet and play write of this age. Meghaduta and
Ritusamhara are lyrical poems. Abhijyana Shankunthalam is also known for its
fine characters and imagery. Most important play was Vikramorvashi and
Malavikagnimitram.
2. Vishakhadutta: was a great poet and playwright of Gupta period. His two
historical plays are (1) Mudra Rakshasa and (2) Devi Chandra Gupta. Mudra
Rakshasa was the story of how Chandra Gupta Maurya manged to get the throne
of Magadha and Devi Chandra Gupta is a historical play dealing with the early life
of Chandra Gupta II.
3. Shudraka: his play was “Mrichchakatika,‟ its deals with the socio-cultural
condition of Gupta period.
4. Harisena: he was a court poet of Samudragupta, wrote a poem on praising
Samudragupta, which is inscribed on Allahabad pillar.
5. Bharavi: he wrote great epic called Kiratarjuna – in it he describes battle between
Arjuna and Lord Shiva disguised as Kirata.
6. Dandin: he was a versatlie writer, his Dash Kumara Charita (tales of the ten
Princes) describes the adventures of ten princes. It gives us information on the
socio-cultural conditions of that period.
7. Subandhu: he was a prose writer, his work is Vasavadatta.
8. Aryabhatta: Famous Mathematician
 Samudra Gupta also established his fame as Kaviraja through his contributions in
literature.
 During the Gupta period the Sanskrit Grammar was written by some grammarians like
Panini and Patanjali. Panini standardized Sanskrit.
 Scientific development also reached its height during this period.
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Panchathanthra
 During this time the Panchathantra, a collection of fables was written – it is said that these
stories were written to teach statecraft to disinterested princes. It was written by Vishnu
Sharma. In these stories, animals and birds play the part of story. These animal stories
helps in instructing children in moral values. The famous work “Hitopadesa” is based on
Panchatanthra. It translated into many languages and no other book except Bible has been
translated into so many languages as this famous book.
 The interest in language continued after the Gupta period.
 A number of valuable dictionaries created during this period.
 Gradually Indian interest in language spread to philosophy like Mimamsa school, Nyaya
etc.
 Thus Sanskrit became a lingua franca for the whole of India.
Education
 The Gupta rulers encouraged higher learning by patronizing centres of higher education at
Nalanda, Takshila, Vikramshila and Vallabhi.
 Each of these university specialized in particular field of study.
 During the Gupta period India became a centre for higher studies by attracting scholars
from all parts of India and from several foreign countries.
Nalanda University
 Biggest centre, handed all branches of knowledge, residential university

 situated near Rajagriha,
 highest seat of Buddhist learning,
 established during the time of Kumaragupta (414-445 AD),
 eminent scholars like Panini, Jivaka, Chanakya are said to have studied here.
 According to Huang Tsang, it was six-storieyed bulding.
 Shilbhadra, once the head of university.
 Specialized in Mahayana Buddhism.
 Taught logic, grammar, philosophy, astronomy, literature, Buddhism and Hinduism.
 Later destroyed by Muhammad bin Baktiyar Khilji, a general of Mohammad Ghori
around 12th century.
 It helped to spread Indian culture in foreign countries like Tibet, China, Central Asia and
South East Asian countries.
Takshila University
 Specialised in the study of medicine

 Situated about 50 km west of Rawalpindi in Pakistan.
 Not a well-organised city like Nalanda
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 Panini, grammarian, Kautilya (who wrote Arthashastra) and Charaka (famous physician)
and Chandra Gupta Maurya were the product of this university.
 It gained its important again during the time of Kanisha (Kushana dynasty).
 Considered as ancient seats of higher education.
 It was already famous about 300 BC at the time when Alexander came to India.
Vikramshila University
 Established by Pala King Dharam Pala in Bihar (780-815 AD)

 Situated in Magadha.
 Like Nalanda, it was a monastery and Buddhist seat of learning.
 It was also attacked by Bakhtiyar Khilji on 12th century.
 It is responsible for spreading Indian culture in Tibet and Nepal.
Vallabhi University
 Situated in modern Gujarat.

 Buddhist monastery and centre of religious learning.
 Specilaized in many branches of learning like Arthashastra, Law, Medicine etc.
Sarnath University
 Specialized in Buddhist religion.
Ajanta
 Specialised in art, architecture and painting.

 These educational institutions were financed by grants of land and liberal donations from
kings as well as from other affluent people.
 At the same time, Buddha and Jains literature also grew up during this time.
Architecture
 There were a lot of styles and methods used in Gupta architecture which continued by
later dynasties and thus it became the standard character of Indian architecture and a new
independent culture developed.
 In addition to Gandhara Nagar and Dravida styles also introduced.
 There were a lot of features which we could find in the Indian architecture as follows:
1. Rock out caves or caves temples: The older rock out caves continued by the Guptas but
with some novelty by adding ornaments and designs in the pillars and walls.
E.g. Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra), Bagh (Madhya Pradesh) and Udayagiri caves
(Orissa)
2. Temple Architecture: A new era started in the history of temple architecture by Guptas.
 Free standing sculptural temples
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 For the first time they used permanent materials like brick and stone, instead of Bamboo
and wood.
 The Gupta architects invented an artistic standard, which became the general rule of
temple construction later. E.g. Stone temple in Deogarh of Dasavatara with excellent
carving and panels, is a fine example of Temple architecture of India.
 New style and methods used in temple architecture – like Shikhara (square temple with
curvi linear tower) and Vimana (flat roofed temple with a second storey.
3. Stupas:
 Especially Buddhist Stupas were famous
 Important stupas were Sanchi in Bhopal and Amravati in lower Krishna valley etc.
 Later it became more ornate with carved panels.
 Later examples were Sarnath, Nalanda and Amaravati.
 Sarnath was a tall stupa near Banaras, it depicts the scene of Buddha‟s first sermon.
 The Stupa of Nalanda seven times enlarged.
 Amaravati tells the story of life of Buddha.
 With this, many small stupas and buildings, monasteries etc. attached later.
Sculptures
 So many sculptural schools (styles) were present earlier e.g. Mathura, Bhārhut, Sanchi
etc.
 A good specimen is well known erect Buddha from Sarnath. In it the icon of Buddha,
“turning the wheel of the Law”, or preaching his first sermon, which is the greatest of all
other Indian sculpture and it conveys the true message of Buddhism. It is considered as
the main example of Gupta Sculpture.
 More sculptures were present in Gwalior, Jhansi, especially depicting Hindu Gods and
mythological scences. For e.g. Sun-god Surya (Gwalior)
 A dancer with girl musicians (Gwalior)
 Sanchi Torso, Great Boar (Varaha), Carved at the entrance of a cave at Udayagiri near
Bhilsa.
 Later also under Palas and Senas both Buddhism and Hinduism icons made e.g.
Khajuraho temple (Orissa)
Metal Statues
 The art of casting statues practiced by Gupta craftsmen. For e.g. A copper image of
Buddha (18 feet high) at Nalanda in Bihar, Buddha statue at Sultan Ganj (7½ feet high).
Painting
 Paintings constituted a significant position during this time than sculpture.

 Cave paintings of Ajanta are one of the fine examples.
 Remains of paintings found in Ajanta, Bagh, Badami and other places.
 The surface of these paintings done in very simple way.
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 Mural paintings were also present.

 The art of Ajanta and Bagh shows the „Madhyadesa school‟ of painting.
 Minor arts also developed during this time like, Jewellery design, ivory carving, coin
making etc.
 In addition to this Music, and dancing patronised by them.
Dance
 This art is fully patronised according to Hindu custom. Shiva is considered as master of
Dance – and known as Nataraja.
 Indian dancing under goes many transformations.
 Bharata‟s Natyashastra is considered as the main source of Indian dance forms –
according to it dancing (aritya) is closely connected with acting (natya).
 Main feature of Indian dancing is hand-gesture (mudra).
 Indian folk dances are also famous.
Music
 Music also got much importance in medieval society and even mentioned in Sama Veda.
 One of the main Instrument was veena.
 Several references in Bharata‟s Natyashastra.
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6. ISLAM
Basic Teachings of Islam
 Islam is the religion revealed by Allah and preached by Prophet Hazrat Muhammad it is
the embodiment of the code of life which Allah has framed to serve as norm for mankind.
 Islam is an Arabic word and denotes submission and obedience – as a religion, it stands
for complete submission and obedience to the will of Allah and that is why it is called
Islam. The other literal meaning of the word Islam is “peace” and this signifies that one
can achieve real peace of body and of mind only through submission to Allah.
 The basic Islamic concept is that the entire universe is created by Allah. He is one and has
no associates. He is the ruler, sustainer and maintainer of the universe. He created man
and appointed for each human being a fixed period which he is to spend upon the earth.
 Allah has prescribed a certain code of life for man – one who chooses to follow the code
revealed by Allah becomes a Muslim (believer) and one who refuses to follow it becomes
a Kafir (non-believer).
 The basic principle of Islam includes the belief in Prophet Hood. Both these beliefs are
epitomised in Kalimah „La ilaha ill-Allah Muhammad ur Rasul-ullah.‟ i.e. there is no
God except Allah, Muhammad is His Prophet.
 The third belief is the life after death.
 Thus the basic articles or teachings of Islamic faith are three.
 Belief in the Unity of God (Tawhid)
 Belief in the Prophet hood of Muhammad (SAW) and in the guidance he gave (Risala)
 Beliefs in the life-after death and in man‟s accountability before Allah on the Day of
Judgement. (Ma’ad)
Main features of Islam:
 Tawhid: The oneness of God (Allah). It is the first and foremost principle and cardinal
stone of faith in Islam. A well prescribed monotheism. It was against polytheism,
dualism, atheism, and idolatry. It denounces shirk (associating anything with Allah).
 Simplicity and Practicability: without any mythology – simple and intelligible teachings
– free from superstition and irrational beliefs – based on reason and logic – it is
considered as a practical religion.
 A Complete code of life : which covers every aspect of an individual‟s life from his birth
to his death and from the grave to the other world – it provides all individual, social,
material, moral, economic, political, legal cultural, national, international guidance.
 Universalism : Its for the entire human race – According to Islam all men are equal and
repudiates all false barriers of race, status and wealth.
 The religion of Islam may be divided into two parts.
1. Theorotical Part i.e. articles of faith or its doctrines.
2. Practical Part i.e. the things which a Muslim is required to do.
 Theoretical Part is called Iman or Faith and Practical Part is ‘amal’ or deeds.
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 Both these parts constitutes the five pillars of Islam (Arkan)

 It is the beliefs and practices enjoined by Islam for mankind.
1. Iman or Faith
2. Salat or Prayer
3. Sawm or Fasting
4. Zakat or Almsgiving
5. Hajj or Piligrimage
 Iman or Faith : Iman means to believe in seven things.
1. Allah (Tawhid)
2. Prophets (Risala)
3. Angels (Malaika)
4. Life after Death (Ma’ad)
5. Predestination (Taqdis)
6. Day of Resurrection
7. Revealed Books.
1) Tawhid (To believe in Only Allah): It is the essence of Islam – means oneness or unity –
Basic concept of Islam – Allah had no partner (shirk) which is forbidden by Islam – Islam
had no mediating power – Islam established a direct relationship between the creator and
his creation – Allah has attributes only – The attributes of Allah are called Asma-ul Husna
or 99 excellent names of God.
2) Risalah (belief in Prophets): A Muslim should believe it as a second important dogma of
Islam – there are 124000 prophets were sent to earth – 24 mentioned in Quran – main
were 5 – Adam, Nuh, Ibrahim, Musa and Isa – the last prophet was Muahmmad (SAW)
who is the greatest of all – so he is known as the “seal of the Prophet.” The Prophets who
brought Holy Books are called Rasul and others are Nabi. 4 mentioned in Quran
 The prophetic concept of Islam is different from other religions – He is a human being
only as a messenger of God – Do not have any magical power – entirely different from
Avatara or incarnation of God.
Malaika (Belief in the angels) : In Arabic the term Malak means messenger – serves as
intermediaries between God and man – they transmit messages to the individuals chosen by
God for the task of being His messengers. These messengers are called Prophets.
 Jibril is the Malak of Prophet Muhammad

 Jibril means „power of God‟
 In Quran it mentioned as al-ruh al-amin (trustworthy spirit)
 Important angels are Jibril, mikail, Izrail and Israfil
Their duties
 To praise and glory the lord

 Given necessary qualities and powers to perform specific functions.
 No free will like man.
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 Creatures of light.
 Millions were present, invisible
 According to Islam angels are continuously present on earth during the time of prayer.
 They recording all of our thoughts, words and deeds.
Ma’ad (life after death) and day of Resurrection: It is to believe that whoever is born in this
world had to die one day – the present world is not eternal – according to Islam there will be
a life hereafter which is called Ma‟ad or Akhirat. i.e. Man‟s life divided into two – life in this
world and eternal life after death.
 Prophet Mohammad explained it in detail

 Mainly 3 stages
1. From death to resurrection – an internal between death and resurrection
2. Last day or resurrection – world will destroy by the command of God – all men will
raise up to render full account of their doings on earth. Good will send to paradise
others to Hell.
3. Last stage – who in paradise live in eternal bliss and happiness without pain – who in
hell, with misery and distress.
 It mentioned in Quran and hadith also.
 It has a great influence over the believer.
Taqdir (predestination): Called as al-Qada-o-al-Qadr means to measure out or pre-ordering.
 To believe that everything is in accord with God whether it is good or bad – this universe
is created by God and all minute acts or happenings were according to the law of God,
which is called the law of nature. It also mentioned in Quran.
 But this doesn‟t means that all happenings are decided by God – man has got freedom of
will and wisdom. Gods gives as certain options and we have to choose either good or bad.
 Only man have such a quality.
Revealed Books
1. Sahifa or scrolls given to Ibrahin (Abraham)

2. Tawrat or Taura to Musa (Mosus)
3. Zabur or Psalms to Dawud (David)
4. Injil or Bible to Isa (Jesus)
 Many of them lost – Sahifa lost completely. Some changed or altered.
 Quran is the revealed book of Islam
 Word of God – final revelation uncreated
 Every Muslim should believe in other 4 revealed books.
 One is a continuation of other Quran is the conclusion of that revelation.
 So it is considered as the completed form of revelation by God.
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Salat or Prayer
 Second pillar of Islam

 Obligatory duty (Farz) to perform five time prayer to be a Muslim – it is the dividing line
between believer and unbeliever.
 Rules – it should perform in proper time, facing Qiblah to Kaaba – its to bring uniformity
among all Muslims in the World.
 It has 2 types (1) Farz (obligatory) and Sunnah (prophets practice) – each has varying
raka’at (means bowing down to God.
 Quran also enjoined prayer for a Muslim.
 Each prayer is preceded by Azan or call to prayer.
 E.g. of Farz : (Fajr, Zuhr, Asr, Magrib, Isha)
 Juma in Friday is also Farz (2 raka’at)
 E.g. of Sunnah : festival prayer (Eid) (2 raka’at), prayer for dead, eclipse prayer etc.
 Before prayer, worshipper should purify or clean body, wuzu or Tayammun.
Its Significance
 Its to know Allah and keep man away from evil.

 The fixation of Qibilah proves unity in prayer
 Congregation (combined prayer) also proves equality and brotherhood
 Its help man to develop purity, cleanliness, punctuality etc.
 It is the observance of external as well as internal devotion and based on fear & love to
God.
Sawm or Fasting
 Third pillar – it is prescribed once a year on Ramadan, 9th month (new moon to new
moon in Shawwal) – obligatory to every Muslim who is grown up and physically fit.
 Sawm means „abstaining‟ (i.e. to keep away) so fasting means to refrain and abstain, from
morning till sunset, food, drink and other evil things – after one month fasting, the next
day is Eid festival.
 Fasting is present in almost all religions except Zoroastrianism.
 According to Quran fasting is to present evil tendency and to purify one‟s soul.
 It was set up by Prophet Muhammad in 2nd year of Hijra.
 The month of Ramadan specified for fasting – Ramz means „to burn‟ – so in this month a
man burns his evil through fasting – Ramadan also called as month of Quran.
 During this time, not only food and drink, all vicious things and actions abstains.
 One of the last nights of Ramadan is called Lailat al-Qadr is considered as most precious
than a thousand months.
 In 27th night of Ramdan (consider as Lailat al-Qadr), in the whole nights some Muslims
pass in prayer and recitation of Quran.
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Benefits of Fasting
 It teaches self-discipline and self control.

 Through it rich people will understand the hunger like poor.
 It promotes the spirit of togetherness by having food together at night.
 It is a path of goodness and God consciousness comes (Taqwa).
Zakat or almsgiving
 Islam is the only religion which formulated a principle, based on charity i.e. to support the
poor, orphan and widow.
 2 forms of charity in Islam
(1) Obligatory (Zakat) and
(2) Voluntary (Sadaka)
 „Zaka‟ means to purify – its main principle is that, in all our possession, our contribution
is very minimum and God has a due portion in it. So it is our responsibility to share that
portion with the poor – its aim is to reduce the gap between rich and poor, – that is, to
spent money for the cause of God is called Zakat.
 Zakat is a compulsory poor tax levied according to definite conditions and collected only
from Muslims, who have possession of their own.
 According to Quran, Zakat should spent to those people who are poor, & destitute the
way farer, the bankrupt (one who had debt) converts, captives (to free slaves), collectors
of zakat, arming volunteers, who in Holy wars, to poor travellers etc.
 Definite rules prescribed for calculation of zakat – generally 2½ % of property is accepted
as zakat.
 In Quran, zakat is considered equal to Salat – but no forcing to give it.
 It is according to the conscience of an individual.
 20 times zakat mentioned in Quran.
 It covers social, moral and religious character
 Religious – Zakat, is considered as equal to Salat so it has that much importance in
Islamic faith.
 Social and moral – it help to create equality among people – and to solve wealth problem
in society. It helps to strengthen unity of Muslim community.
Benefits
 It lead to economic security to Muslim community and to prevent accumulation of wealth

in few hands.
 It brings harmony and perfection in the society.
 Helps to abolish begging – create balance.
 According to scholars zakat exempted for equipments and tools which encourages trade
and agriculture.
 It implied in many Islamic states like Malasiya, Arabia, Pakistan, Iran etc.
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Hajj or Pilgrimage
 Fifth pillar of Islam – literally means „to set out‟ or „to repair a thing through a visit.‟
 It is an obligatory duty of a Muslim at least once in a lifetime.
 Its an act of worship, performed annually in the month of Dhu al-Hijjah, the 12th month
of lunar calendar.
 It is obligatory to those who are adult, in good health and have enough money for the
expenses of their journey to Mecca and maintain their family during their absence.
 Women could perform Hajj by accompanying a close relative (father, husband or
brother).
 It is not a new introduction by prophet – it practiced earlier in Arabia and Middle East.
 According to Quran Prophet Ibrahim was the founder of Hajj.
 It helps to unite different Muslim communities, and its an only opportunity for Pan-
Islamic union.
 Prophet Mohammad removed all idols from Ka‟aba and made some modifications on
Hajj.
 Two types of pilgrimage – Hajj and Umra.
 Hajj: the annual pilgrimage of Muslims, prescribed on a certain fixed time, in the month
of Dhul-al-Hijja is called Hajj – who performs it called Haji (pilgrim) – 3 months called
as Hajj months – shawwal, Dhul Qadah, Dhul Hijjah (10th, 11th, & 12th month of
Islamic calendar).
 Umra: it is the minor pilgrimage and it is only a visiting of Ka‟aba at any time other than
Hajj time. The rituals and rites of Umra were less compared to HJajj.
 The rituals & ceremonies include
1. Niyyat: thinking of intention to perform Hajj
2. Ihram: special dress were called Ihram, white coloured two piece of cloth, after
taking bath 2 rakat prayer wears it. After this one must not shave, remove nail, kill
any animal etc. women allow ordinary dress – face open – no veil allowed.
3. Talbiah: Recitation after Ihram i.e. Labbaik Allahumma Labbaik (I stand in thy
service of Allah, I stand in thy service of Allah).
4. Tawaf: giving round Ka‟aba 7 times: 3 time quick pace 4 times at slow pace.
Kissing of black stone (Hajr al-Aswad) also perform during this time.
5. Sayee: Pilgrim run from Mount Safa to Mount Marwah, two mounts near Ka‟aba
seven times on the 6th of Dhul al-Hijja.
6. Pilgrim next listen to Khutba in great mosque at mecca (7th) performs salat of
Zuhur.
7. 8th day called as day of slaking thirst (Yaum al-Tarwiyah). As an imitation of
Prophet pilgrim performs at Mina (4 miles from Mecca) and remains there whole
night.
8. On the 9th day, pilgrims gather in Arafat, performs Zuhr and Asr, then Imam
delivers Khutba. Pilgrims stay in Arafat from after noon till sunset and is known
as Waquf (halting or standing still) – it is very important among the devotional
Page | 39
rituals of Hajj – Hajj is considered to have been performed only if the pilgrims
reaches Arafat on 9th day of Dhul al-Hijja, other wise not.
9. Then they again reach at Mina on the morning of 10th, called as Yaum al-Nahr
(day of sacrifice) which is celebrated as Id-ul-Azha – animals sacrificed – then
pilgrims return and perform Tawaf again around Ka‟aba – this is called Tawaf al-
Ifazah.
 Then pilgrims exit, shaved head or shorten – then going round Ka‟aba once again.
 11th, 12th and 13th day are called Ayyam al-Tashriq, the moonlight nights.
Other Minor Rituals
 Drinking water from the well of Zamzam

 Throwing stones at 3 pillar symbolizing devil
 Visiting of tomb of the prophet at Medina.
Socio-Religious Significance
 It also covers socio-religious significance

 Social – it helps to unite different Muslim community together.
 Proves sense of unity in Islamic world.
 Its an idea of Universal brother hood and equality of men.
Social Teachings of Islam
 As a complete code of life, Islam emphasizes on the social conduct, good manners and
rights for each other.
 These rights holds an important role in Islamic teachings – Islam emphasized on a society
based on deep sense of moral responsibility and justice – one can become a good and true
Muslim only when he observes the social code prescribed by Islam.
 Islam also includes the rules and regulations about the modes and manners between man
and man and between man and society – Islam prescribed certain rights and
responsibilities to man.
Human Rights in Islam
 Muslim theologians divides rights into two categories (1) God‟s Rights & (2) Human
Rights.
 According to Umar God‟s right second to Human Rights. For e.g. If one wants to perform
pilgrimage without clearing his responsibilities is not accepted in Islam.
 The Arabic term used for Human Rights is „Haquq‟, which is the plural of Haq (right).
Rights of Muslims and Other Human Beings
 Right for Life: According to Quran, “To put a life to death without justice means to put all
humanity to death. A Muslim is not allowed to commit suicide.
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 Right for Basic Needs: According to Islam both society and State are responsible to
provide men with the basic needs of life. i.e. housing, clothing, freedom etc.
 Among the fundamental rights in Islam, freedom is supreme of all.
 Freedom of religion, freedom for financial life, and the political rights were the other
fundamental rights of man.
1. According to this man is completely free in his choice by faith and no one has
right to impose one faith on other. (e.g. of prophet)
2. Everyone has the right to ownership.
3. It means every citizen of a Muslim state has the right to participate in state
affairs whether of Muslims or non-Muslims.
 Islam always on the toleration to non-Muslims and prophet Muhammad, in his
administrative system always keep a favouring attitude towards non-Muslims.
 Islam also emphasised on the rights between Muslim on each other because they linked
with the common bond of Islam.
 In addition to this the rights of parents, relatives and neighbours etc. were also
emphasised and explained in Islamic principles.
Sources of Islamic Tradition

I. Quran
 Sacred book of Muslims – sole authority or source of all Islamic Law
 114 (92 Meccan, 22 Madinite) surahs or chapters – revealed to Prophet Muhammad
(SAW), through Gabriel in 610 AD, at cave Hira at night of Lailat al-Qadar
 It revealed as portions and revealed over 22 years (12 years at Mecca and 10 years at
Medina) – last at Arafat.
 He revealed to people, some preserved it in memory (known as hafiz), some written on
paper, palm leaves, shoulder bones of camels.
 Sura divided into Ruku (sections) and it into Ayats (verses).
 Also divided into 30 Juz (for convenience of reading)
 Opens with „Fatiha‟ means the „opening.‟
 Repeated invocation „Bismillahirrahmani Rahim’ (In the name of God, the most
beneficent the most merciful).
 Its arrangement is not in chronological order – Prophet arranged the verses of Quran.
 Revelation (Wahy) was in different forms like Kashf (vision), Ruya (dream), Ilham
(voice) or Ringing of Bell and direct meeting with Gabriel.
Collection and Compilation of Quran

 According to traditions, each year, during the time of Ramadan, Gabriel came to Prophet
and recited the whole Quran before him. After completing revelation, Gabriel came to
him and recited the entire whole Quran twice and then Prophet twice. Thus it fully
arranged by them. But prophet didn‟t try to compile it as a single book – it was done
under Abu Bakr and Umar later
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II. Hadith
 Means statement or report i.e. records of the words, deeds and sanctions of Prophet – i.e.
saying and doings of Prophet Muhammad.
 Second fundamental source of Islam – it gives full account of the life of Prophet.
 Quran mainly deals with basic or fundamental principle of Islam – Hadith gives us the
details and necessary explanattion of Qurʽānic injunctions.
 Through his life Prophet Muhammad exemplify the words of Quran. It explained in detail
in Hadith – i.e. Quran is theory and Hadith is about the practice which couldn‟t separate
from one another.
Compilation of Hadith
 Divided into 4 stages:

 Period during the time of Prophet (till 10 AH)
 Compilation during the time of Sahaba (Companions)
 Age of Tabeyins (disciples of Companions)
 Taba Tabeyins (disciples of disciples)
 Hadith has two parts – Isnad (chain of transmission) and Matan (content)
 The critical scrutiny emerged in 4th stage called Rawayat (for Isnad) Derayat (for Matan)
 Classification on the basis of reliability
 Sahih (sound or most reliable)
 Hasan (good)
 Daif (weak)
 Finally 6 authentic collections called Sihah Sittah, the six canonical books.
 Bukhari
 Muslim
 Abu Daud
 Ibn Majah
 Tirmizi
 Nisai
 They called as Muhaddatins
 Then arised the trend of „Fiqh‟ or Islamic Jurisprudence
 It means intelligence – i.e. implication of independent exercise of intelligence in deciding
a point of law, from the knowledge obtained from Quran and Hadith. According to it new
sources emerged.
III. Ijma
 Third source of Islamic Law
 Consensus of opinion of the companion of Prophet – but according to some, it is an
agreement of the Muslim jurists of a particular age on a point of law.
IV. Qiyas
 Analogical deduction or judging by comparing with a thing.
 i.e. analogical deduction from Quran, Hadith (Sunnah) and Ijma.
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 It was the principle, which the Muslims adopted after the death of Prophet to explain new
problems of life.
V. Ijtihad
 Exercise of Judgement
 Trying to discover the proper application of the teachings of the Quran and the Hadith to
a particular situation (e.g. lawyer‟s exerting of law in an issue)
 It was encouraged in Quran
 According to these sources different schools emerged.
Life of Prophet Muhammad

 Born in Quraysh family – clan of Banu Hashim of Mecca – father was Abdullah, mother
Amina.
 Born in Rabi al-Awwal on 571 AD. April 20. Father died before his birth.
 During this time Mecca was flourished in trade and was also a religious centre.
 Halima was his foster mother until the age of 6 he brought up under Halima and later he
came under his mother, but after one year mother died, and he came under Abdul
Muttalib his grand father – after the death of his grand father he came under his uncle
Abu Talib.
 Known as „Al-Amin‟ (trustworthy) due to his pious character and behaviour.
 Marriage with Khadija at the age of 25 – Then he focused on spiritual world. In 610 AD.
he received revelation and became apostle of Islam.
 Khadija is considered as the first Muslim who accepted the faith propagated by Prophet
Muhammed.
 Then he had to face hostility and persecution from the Umayyads, one of the top clan and
the relatives of Prophet Muhammad.
 During the 12th year of the his mission, „the miraj‟ (nocturnal journey) in which he met
Allah and received many important revelations during this time.
 One of the most important event and turning point in the life of prophet Muhammad was
Hijra (emigration of Prophet and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD.)
 He migrated due to the opposition and persecution from the Meccans but he receive a
warm welcome from the Madinites.
 Prophet became a ruler as well as statesman in Medina and introduced his political code
and administrational system based on Islamic principles. A commonwealth established in
which he showed much tolerance to non-Muslims.
 Later he engaged in the propagation of his faith and Islam spread in various parts of
Arabian and Syrian peninsula.
 Then a lot of struggle and war took place between Prophet and the Quraishites (Meccan
relatives of prophet). Among these The Battle of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, were some of
them. Finally he defeated the Meccans and thus established a unified Islamic state under
him.
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 After this the spreading of Islam moved much widely and prophet under took its
leadership to his death in 632 A.D. during this time prophet unified whole Arabia under
Islam.
[Detailed description on the Life of Prophet Muhammad is also attached]
Page | 44
7. SIKHISM
 India is a country which witnessed the birth of both polytheistic and atheistic religions
like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism respectively.
 During the 13th to 15th century AD. Some monotheistic (belief in one God) movements or
trends emerged in India which got much acceptance from the Indian people.
 Some religious teachers or preachers emerged in this period like Kabir, Nanak,
Ramananda etc. among them only Nanak became much successful in establishing a new
religious order or faith.
 Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded during the 15th century in Punjab by Guru
Nanak Dev.
I. Nanak (1469-1539) – The First Guru and the Founder of Sikhism
 Born at Talwandi (now Nanakana of Punjab in Pakistan).

 He became interested in divine subjects at the age of 5.
 He travelled in most of his life especially in West Asia and Russia.
 According to traditions, at the age of 30, he had a vision according to which he
propounded his new monotheistic ideology.
 He preached a casteless, universal, ethical, anti-ritualistic, monotheistic and highly
spiritual religion. Nanak laid greater stress on the purity of character and conduct as the
first condition in approaching God, and also emphasized on the need of a Guru for
guidance.
 He appointed Bhai Lehna as the successor Guru and renamed him as Angad and he died
on 22nd September 1539 at Kartarpur, at the age of 70.
 After Nanak‟s death, his followers called themselves „Sikhs‟ and a new religious sect
called „Sikhism‟ was founded.
 Nanak was followed by 9 Sikh Gurus who carried out his task after his death.
II. Guru Angad: The second Guru – his started the Gurumukhi script (a script written in
Punjabi language and used in all Sikh scriptures).
III. Guru Amardas: The third Guru – he began the institution of Langar (common
kitchen) to abolish the caste system – it emphasizes on equality of all without any
discrimination.
IV. Guru Ramdas: The fourth Guru – he started the construction of Har Mandir (Golden
Temple) at Amritsar (its site given by Akbar). He also composed many hymns and
poems in praise of the divine name which were sung by the Sikh Panth.
V. Guru Arjun: The fifth Guru – he compiled the Adi Granth (one of the chief source of
Sikh tradition and the first form of Guru Granth Sahib) and also completed the
construction of Har Mandir at Amritsar. He was executed by Mughal Emperor
Jahangir for political reasons.
VI. Guru Hargobind: The sixth Guru – The execution of Guru Arjun led to the first phase
of militancy among the Sikhs under Hargobind, who was also imprisoned by Jahangir
for 10 years – he also introduced the institution of Akal Takht, which serves as the
Supreme decision making centre of Sikhs.
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VII. Guru Harrai: The seventh Guru – his period was quite uneventful.
VIII. Guru Har Kishan: The Eighth Guru – he died of small pox at the tender age of 8.
IX. Guru Tegh Bahadur: The Ninth Guru, was executed by Mughal Emperor
Aurangazeb.
X. Guru Gobind Singh: The Tenth and last Guru – established the Khalsa and organized
the Sikhs into a military sect. He also compiled the Guru Granth Sahib (the primary
source of Sikh principle). All his sons were killed by a Mughal army – at his death he
declared that the line of living Gurus came to an end and the „Granth Sahib‟ will act
as the everlasting Guru for the Sikh comunity. Thus he introduced the Guru Panth
which became the leader of Sikhs under the guidance of Guru Granth Sahib. The
greatest contribution of Gobind Singh is the establishment of Khalsa itself trough
which he gave a definite shape to Sikh Panth.
Khalsa
 It means „the army of God.‟

 Under Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru, it established and the Sikhs organized as a
military group to defend themsleves from persecution of others especially Mughals.
 According to him its function was the protection and safe guarding of all peoples of God
regardless of religion, colour, race or creed.
 With the help of Khalsa a wide political development took place among the Sikhs during
medieval period especially 17th and 18th century. During this period it became much
powerful that it led to the creation of a Sikh Empire first time in history. Maharaja Ranjit
Singh was one of the well-known and capable Sikh King of this empire and it is based on
Punjab area. This empire expanded so widely that its frontier covered almost all parts of
North West India including Gujarat some parts of Pakistan etc.
 Gradually Khalsa became the collective name which represents all Sikhs.
Panth
 The word Panth came from the Sanskrit words ‘patha’ or ‘pantham’ which means
literally a way, passage or path, figuratively means, a way of life, religious creed or cult.
 In Sikh terminology, the word panth stands for both the Sikh faith and for the Sikh people
as a whole. It represents the invisible link of all those who profess Sikhism as their faith.
 In medieval period, the word panth used as a suffix to names of the preceptor of a
particular creed For E.g. Gorakh Panth and Kabir Panth...etc. Even Sikhism earlier known
as Nanak panth.
 But now „Panth‟ emerged as a comprehensive concept standing for the totality of Sikh
system. It represented both jot (spirit) and jugut ( institution) of the Sikhs.
 It took a new shape under Guru Gobind Singh (1666-1708)when he transformed Sanghat
( common union of Sikhs) into Khalsa.
 Gradually Panth & Khalsa used as synonymously and known as the Khalsa Panth.
Page | 46
Main Principles and Features of Sikhism
 The chief principle of Sikhism is monotheism the belief in one indestructible, formless
God.
 Sikhs advocates the pursuit of salvation through personal meditation on name and
message of God.
 The principal beliefs of Sikhs are faith and justice.
 A Sikh is initiated into the religion by a rite called „Pahul,‟ when he is of the adult age.
He is also entitled to use the honourific title „Singh‟ after his name which means Lion.
 The orthodox Singhs are also distinguished by the five Kakka (five K‟s). they were Kesa
(top knot), Kachha (short drawers), Kara (Iron Bangle), Kanga (Comb) and Kirpan
(sword). It is considered as the identity of a Sikh.
 Certain things were prohibited for Sikhs like cutting hair, intoxication, animal sacrifice,
priestly class, material obsession, worthless talk etc.
 Sikh principles encourages living life as a house holder.
 Guru Amardas shifted this Sikh centre from Kartarpur to Goindval. Guru Ramdas
established Amritsar as a centre which was completed by Guru Arjun. This is the most
important Sikh centre now.
 There is 25.8 million Sikhs were present world wide which is 0.39% of world population.
Among these 75% of them lives in Punjab. Others were belongs to various parts of the
world.
Adi Granth and Guru Granth Sahib: The Adi Granth compiled bhai Gurdas under the
supervision of Guru Arjun Dev between the years of 1603 and 1604. It was written in
Gurumukhi script. It is the first form of Granth Sahib. The final version of Guru Granth Sahib
is compiled by Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru in 1678. It consist of original Adi Granth
with addition of Guru Tegh Bahadur‟s hymns and one verse by Guru Gobind Singh. It also
contains teachings of saints like Kabir, Namdev, Sheikh Farid etc. it is considered as the
eleventh and final spiritual authority of the Sikhs.
Page | 47
8. CHRISTIANITY
 Christianity is a monotheistic religion which is based on the life and teachings of Jesus
Christ.
 The new testament is considered as the basic source of all Christian principles and
biography of Jesus Christ. These teachings depicted especially in first four canonical
gospels of new testament writings, which were Mathew, Mark Luke and John.
 According to Christian belief, Jesus Christ is the son of God and savior of humanity.
Jesus referred as Christ (Messiah) and so the follower of Christ came to be known as
Christians.
Life of Jesus
 Many contradictory views about the birth of Jesus Christ – main sources were Gospels of
Luke and Mathew.
 According to the Gospel of Mathew, Jesus born during the reign of Herod the Great – he
was born in Bethlehem.
 Generally it is accepted that his birth was between 6 and 4 BC – according to some it was
between 7-2 BC.
 Jesus‟s childhood home is identified as Nazareth on Galilee. Mother was Mary and
Joseph was step father.
 Then Jesus was baptized by John , the Baptist when he came and baptized people in the
river Jordan – he fore tell about the arrival of someone and realized Jesus as the Messiah
of God.
 During this period of Baptism, when Jesus emerges from water, the sky opens and a voice
came from heaven suggested that “This is my beloved son with whom I am well pleased.”
 According to sources the Holy spirit them descends upon Jesus as a dove. (During this
time itself the word „son‟ used to denote him.)
 According to these sources, Jesus was about 30 years of age at the start of his ministry
(when he started revelation).
 All these estimates also calculated according to independent nativity accounts and
Gospels.
 According to sources the ministry lasted approximately one year, according to some it
lasted at least three years.
 Many views about his death also – all 4 canonical Gospels reports that Jesus was
crucified during 26 – 36 AD.
 Another important event was the Conversion of Paul during 51-52 AD (approximately)
because under Paul a wide development took place.
 The scientists also tried to prove date of crucifixion. According to scientific sources (i.e.
to calculate the date of Lunar Eclipse).
Page | 48
Teachings and Principles of Christianity
 The main sources for the teachings of Christianity are also the same 4 Gospels of new
testaments through which we could get much information on the basic principles and
teachings of Jesus Christ.
 In the new testament, the teachings of Jesus are presented in term of his “words and
works.” The words includes the speeches and sermons appears throughout his life, which
mentioned in Gospels and the works include the miracles and other acts performed during
his ministry.
 The new testament tried to present the teachings of Jesus Christ by equating and mingling
it with divine revelation.
 The Gospels include a number of discourses by Jesus on specific occasions like the
farewell discourse delivered after last supper, the night before his crucifixion.
 Another important incidents were Betraying of Judas, disowning of Peter 3 times before
morninng etc.
 The general principles of Christianity is considered as diversity, unity and Humanity.
 Here diversity represents the division of Christian church into many and it led to creation
of many church with slight variation of principles.
 This unity represents the unity which exists among the Christian community inspite of
many diverse churches and divisions.
 The third principle humanity means Christianity is based on humanitarian values.
 His teachings took many forms, sharp sayings, extended discourse, parable etc.
 He never tried to introduce a new teachings into the traditions ever. He always tried for
the implication of familiar things.
 Jesus is respected as one of the world‟s greatest teachers by many who do not accept what
the Christian Church says about him.
 Parables were a major component of the teachings of Jesus in the Gospels. Their were
approximately 30 parables formed about one third of his recorded teachings. It was
simple and memorable stories, often with imagery, and each conveys a teaching which
usually relates the physical word to the spiritual world.
 The miracles performed by Jesus, according to Gospel teaches the importance of faith.
The Church
 The church constitutes the principles of Christian practice i.e. how Christians express
their faith.
 The word Church was not used earlier and it introduced during the 4th and 5th centuries
from an obscure and uncertain background.
 But we could find several descriptions about church in the new testament itself.
 One of the most important descriptions is that, these descriptions depicts the church as
the body of Christ. (St. Paul invented this description).
 A Church is also considered as the bride of Christ, mother of Christians etc.
Page | 49
 According to Christian tradition the concept of Church propounds the idea of „the people
of God.‟
 The Christian church is the assembly or association of followers of Jesus Christ.
 This term referred in many Gospel and scriptures also.
 The four traditional “notes of the Christian church” are unity, holiness, catholicity and
apostolicity.
 In the new testament, the term church is used for both local communities and in a
universal sense to mean all believers.
 Traditionally, only orthodox believers are considered part of the true Church, but the
convictions of what is orthodoxy is vary.
 Gradually different churches emerged in Christianity which led to the creation of different
traditions like orthodox traditions, catholic tradition, protestant and Anglican tradition etc.
 It again could classify into many sub-traditions like Roman catholic, Latin catholic,
Eastern Orthodox etc.
 Roman Catholics trace their spiritual history to the early disciples of Jesus.
 Eastern Orthodox Church that was formed in the fourth century due to the political
reasons and the two Churches officially separated in 1054 AD.
 In addition to that the Protestants split up from Roman Catholicism during the
reformation because of the differences and reformations that were introduced in 16th and
17th century series in the doctrines and practices of the Church.
 Today there is a wide diversity of Christian groups, with a variety of doctrines and
traditions. The controversies between the various branches of Christianity naturally
include significant differences in their respective ideologies.
Christian Community in India
 According to historical sources, Christianity was established in India even before some
nations of Europe had been Christianized.
 Christianity was introduced to India by Thomas the Apostle, who visited Muziris (an
urban centre and sea port) in Kerala in 52 AD to spread the gospel amongst Kerala‟s
Jewish settlements.
 Gradually Christianity became one of the largest practiced religion in India and it became
India‟s third – largest religion with approximately 24 million followers, constituting 2.3%
of India‟s population.
 The Indian Christians consist of three main sects namely,
1. The Syrian Christians
2. Roman Catholics and
3. Protestants
 More over the Anglo Indian community, Kannada Catholic community etc. were also
present in India.
 According to records, around 70% of Christians in India belong to the Roman Catholic
community.
Page | 50
 The state of Kerala is home to the St. Thomas Christian Community (Syriac Christianity),
who are now divided into many churches and traditions.
 This colony of Syriac Christians, which was established at Kodungallor, became the first
recorded Christian communities in India.
 Now Christians are found all across India and in all walks of life, with major populations
in parts of south India, the Konkan coast and the North East.
Page | 51

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Indian Religious and Culture

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Indian Religions

and Culture (IRC)

1. PRE-ARYAN CULTURE OF INDIA

1. Paleolithic Period (300000 BC – 8000 BC), Old Stone Age

 The Mesopotamian Civilization in the Valleys of Tigris and Euphrates

Indus Valley Civilization

Kols and Bhils

Culture and Society

Script and Language

2. CULTURE AND RELIGION ON THE ARYANS

The Vedic Literature

The Vedic Texts

The four canonical books were

Atharva-Veda: It contains 6000 mantras revealing the history of science in India.

Later Vedic Literature

Six schools were:

1. Sankhya Shastra of Kapila

Later Vedic Age or Epic Age

The Epics Ramayana and Mahabharata

 Written by Rishi Valmiki.

There are also different views on the historic authenticity of Ramayana.

 Contains 100000 slokas or verses, divided into 18 chapters.

 Simply known as Gita, which is a part of Mahabharata, but frequently treated as a

Varnasrama Dharma (Indian Caste System)

 Everyone must go through these four fold stages of life.

So we may consider Buddhism and Jainism as a reformation movement of Hinduism. Both

 He advocated not a set of doctrines or dogmas but a rational scheme of spiritual

Four Noble Truths

The Eight Fold Path (Ashtangamarga)

 The eight fold path comprises:

 Another prominent feature of his teachings is Ahimsa (non-violence). According to him,

Growth and Rise of Buddhism

III. On third council, numerous such differences appeared – it held at Pataliputra,

Growth of Buddhism under Ashoka

Decay of Buddhism in India

The following were the main causes for this decline:

Revival of Buddhism in India

Life of Vardhamana Mahavir

Main teachings of Jainism

 But later a decline occured.

Contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture

The followers of Jainism displayed a great interest in constructing countless temples

5. REVIVAL OF HINDU RELIGION AND CULTURE

Guptas (300 – 500 AD)

Revival of Hindu Religion under Guptas

This social classification was mainly according to the profession i.e.

The Four Varnas

 Position of women were considerably deteriorated

 People were vegetarian

 Veda means knowledge

 He died on 820 AD at Kedaranath, Pala Empire presently at Uttarakhand.

His Philosophy (Advaita Vedanta)

Development in Art and Culture of India

 Biggest centre, handed all branches of knowledge, residential university

 Specialised in the study of medicine

 Established by Pala King Dharam Pala in Bihar (780-815 AD)

 Situated in modern Gujarat.

 Specialized in Buddhist religion.

 Specialised in art, architecture and painting.

 Paintings constituted a significant position during this time than sculpture.

 Mural paintings were also present.

Basic Teachings of Islam

Main features of Islam: