How Do Organism Reproduce?

“Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to produce new living organisms similar
to them. It is one of the important characteristic of life”.

Purpose of Reproduction: Reproduction is aimed at multiplication and perpetuation

(stability) of the species. In other words it provides group immortality by replacing the
dead individuals with new ones.

Basic Features of Reproduction: The modes of reproduction vary in different

organisms. However all of these have certain common basic features. These are –
● replication of DNA
● cell division
● formation of reproductive bodies or units
● development of reproductive bodies into offsprings

Significance of variation

1. Variations help some organism to fit better in the struggle for existence.

2. Variations help to adapt according to the changing environment.

3. Discontinuous variations produce new traits in the organisms.

4. Variation is essential for growth and it takes place during sexual reproduction.

5. Variations give each organism a distinct individuality.

(Note: Variations can be beneficial or harmful according to the ecological niche of the organism.
A variation suitable for the particular niche is selected by nature during evolution. Thus,
variations are necessary for the survival of the species. Variation is also important for the
evolution of species.
For example, a population of heat-resistant bacteria can survive in the high temperature of the
water, but if the temperature of water increases by global warming then most of the bacteria
would die.

DNA contains the master copy of the data; the blueprints for how to make the proteins and other
molecules that make the cell run. In its absence, cells would be unable to replicate and make
the molecules they need to survive, and thus would die. Now, cell replication is the process by
which from one cell two cells are produced. Since the original single cell had only one set of
DNA, it needs to copy it exactly so that both resulting cells have the DNA they need to survive.
Reproduction of multicellular organisms is essentially a lot of cell replications, followed by
differentiation of those cells. The probability of error arising from wrong DNA copying is literally
one billionth. However, it is this probability that allows variations in the living organism to
happen.)

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
There are two main types of Reproduction in living organisms :
● Asexual Reproduction
● Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction

● It involves only one parent and no formation of gametes.

● The offspring produced is a direct replica of the parent leaving no scope for
variation.
● This is also called as vegetative or somatic reproduction and common in plants
and lower animals
● Occurs by budding, binary fission, multiple fission, sporulation and also the
regeneration.
● Protozoans, sponges and coelenterates reproduce mainly by this way.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

Fission
(i) Binary Fission: Seen in bacteria, protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium. (In these first
pseudopodia withdrawn (karyokinesis) the nucleus of the parent cell divides and then
the cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis) resulting in the formation of two daughter cells). It
occurs during highly favorable conditions. The cell division can occur in any plane as in
case of Amoeba. However, organisms like Leishmania. (cause Kala-azar), which have a
whip like flagella at one end, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to
the flagellum.

Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.

Karyokinesis: Division of Nucleus.

(ii) Multiple fission: Sometimes the nucleus divides several times, into many daughter
nuclei. The daughter nuclei arrange at the periphery of the parent cell, and a bit of
cytoplasm around each daughter nuclei is present. Nucleus develops an outer
membrane. Finally the multi-nucleated body divides into many daughter cells. e.g.
Plasmodium.(a malarial parasite).

Reproduction by multiple fission

Budding: Formation of a daughter individual from a small projection which is called

bud, arising on the parent body is called budding.

Budding in Hydra: A bulge appears on the body as a result of repeated mitotic division
in the cells resulting in the formation of lateral out-growth called bud. This bud enlarges
in size by further division of cells and attains the shape of parent. It then separates from
the parent body and starts behaving as new Hydra.
 Budding in Hydra

Fragmentation:

● Seen in multicellular organisms which have a relatively simple body organization

like Spirogyra.
● Spirogyra has a filamentous body. (If it breaks into smaller pieces or fragments).
● Each fragment has the capacity to form a new individual.
However, all multicellular organisms cannot show cell-by-cell division as cells
from tissues which form organs.
● These organs are placed at definite positions in the body. Hence, they need to
use more complex methods of reproduction.

Regeneration:
 ● It is the ability of organisms to develop their lost parts.
● Some organisms show high regenerative capacity it is also a means of
reproduction for example; Planaria.
● (Regeneration is carried out by specialized cells which redivide to form a mass
of cells from which different cells undergo changes to become different cell types
and tissues. )

Spore formation
● A spore is a single or several-celled reproductive structure that detaches from the
parent and gives rise, directly or indirectly to a new individual.
● Spore formation takes place mostly in fungi. In fungi e.g. Rhizopus, Mucor,
Aspergillus, Penicillium etc., spores are formed in a sac-like structure called
sporangium at the tips of fungal hyphae.
● The nucleus divides inside the sporangium and gets surrounded by a small mass
of cytoplasm forming a spore. After attaining maturity, the sporangial wall
ruptures releasing the spores.
● The spores are covered with thick walls that protect them until they come in
contact with another moist surface and can begin to grow.

These spores can be non-motile called aplanospores or motile called zoospores

Different methods used to develop plants which can bears fruits and flowers by
vegetative propagation are as follows:

1. Stem cutting: This involves cutting a part of the stem and planting it in the soil to allow the
growth of roots and buds into shoots.
Examples: sugarcane, pear, china rose
2. Grafting: In grafting, the stem or bud of two best quality plants is combined to form a new
plant. Examples: guava, apple, mango
3. Layering: In this, the lower branch of a plant is bent and covered with soil. Once new roots
start developing on the branch, it is cut from the parent plant and allowed to grow as an
individual plant. Examples: jasmine

Tissue Culture
● Cells from the growing tip of a plant are separated and are grown on a nutrient medium
containing all nutrients and hormones necessary for plant growth.
● These cells form a mass called callus.
● The callus develops plantlets.
 ● These plantlets are transferred to the soil and grow as new individuals.

Advantages of Vegetative Reproduction

● New plants show the exact characteristics as those of the parent plant. This
method is faster and certain.
● Plants not capable of producing sexually can be produced by this method.
Examples: Seedless bananas and grapes
● Vegetative propagation is a more rapid, easier and cheaper method of
multiplication of plants.
● By this method a good quality of a race or variety can be preserved.
● Most of the ornamental plants are propagated through vegetative propagation.
e.g. Rose, Tulip etc.

Disadvantages of Vegetative Reproduction

● There is no possibility of variation.
● The new plant grows in the same area as the parent plant which leads to
competition for resources.

Sexual Reproduction

→ When reproduction takes place as a result of the fusion of male and female gametes is called
sexual reproduction.
→ Fusion of gametes is called fertilization which results in variation.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

→ Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants.
→ A typical flower consists of four main whorls namely sepals, petals, stamen and pistil.

Types of Flowers
• Bisexual flower: Both male and female reproductive parts are present.
Example: Hibiscus, mustard,rose, pea, cotton, etc.
• Unisexual flower: Either male or female reproductive part is present.
Example: Papaya, watermelon,cucurbits, mulberry

Structure of Flower
Pollination: The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the
flower is pollination. Two types of pollination are:
(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower or another flower of the same plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
another flower or another flower of a different plant of the same species. It generally
takes place with the help of some agents like insects, birds, wind and water.

Fertilization: The fusion of male gamete with the female gamete to form a diploid
zygote within the embryo sac is called fertilization.
Double Fertilization
(i) Due to pollination the related pollen grains are deposited over the receptive stigma of
the carpel.
(ii) These pollen grains absorb water, swell and then germinate to produce pollen tubes.
(iii) The pollen tube grows into the stigma, passes through the style and then moves
towards the ovarian cavity.
(iv) Two male gametes are formed inside the tube during its growth through the style.
(v) After reaching the ovary, the pollen tube enters the ovule with its tip piercing the egg
apparatus.
(vi) One male gamete fertilizes the egg to form the diploid zygote by the process of
syngamy.
(vii) The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei to form the triploid (3n),
primary endosperm. This is known as triple fusion.
The mechanism involving two acts of fertilization in an embryo sac is called double
fertilization.

Double fertilization was first studied in plants by Nawaschin in 1898.

Formation of fruits and seeds

(i) The fertilized egg divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.
(ii) The ovule then develops a tough coat( testa) around it which gradually gets
converted into a seed.
(iii) All the fertilized eggs in the ovules present in an ovary grow to become seed.
(iv) The ovary of the flower develops and becomes a fruit, which may be soft like
mangoes; juicy like oranges; hard, dry and woody like peanuts and almonds.
(v) The petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and fall off.
(vi) The fruit protects the seed. The seed is the reproductive unit of a plant. It contains
the baby plant.
(vii) The part of the baby plant that develops into shoot is called plumule and the part
which develops into root is called radicle.

Reproduction system

Puberty is the process in which the body attains sexual maturity by having
well-developed sex organs, and becomes capable of reproduction.

Changes that occur in females during puberty:

(i) development of breasts
(ii) softening of voice
(iii) ovum begins to mature with the onset of puberty.
(iv) occurrence of the menstruation cycle (first menstrual flow beginning at puberty is
called menarche, and the stoppage of menstruation at the age of 45 − 50 years is called
menopause.)

Changes that occur in males during puberty:

● Under the influence of hormones, the larynx develops prominently. The vocal
cord become longer and thicker in boys, causing the voice to become hoarse.
● Growth of hair in other areas of skin like underarms, face, hands, and legs.
● Enlargement of the testicles followed by penis.
● Testes grow and start producing sperms.

Male Reproductive system

 ● Testes - They are located outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called the
scrotum. The function of the testes is to produce sperms and a hormone called
testosterone, which brings about secondary sex characteristics in boys.

● Vas deferens - It carries the sperms from the testes to the urethra. It also
receives the ducts, which bring products from the seminal vesicles and prostate
glands.

● Seminal vesicles and prostate glands - The fluids from these organs provide
nutrients in the form of fructose, calcium, and some enzymes. The sperms
produced in the testes are carried by the vas deferens. The secretions from the
seminal vesicles and prostate glands lubricate the sperms.

● Testes are located outside the abdominal cavity, within a pouch called the
scrotum. For the production of sperms, testes require a temperature that is 2–2.5
°C lower than the temperature of the rest of the body. That is why testes are
protected inside the scrotum.

● Role of seminal vesicles and prostate gland -

(i) Seminal vesicles - The secretions of seminal vesicles contain many proteins and
enzymes and thus provide nutrition to the developing sperms.
(ii) Prostate gland - The prostate gland secretes a slightly alkaline fluid that lubricates
the sperms and neutralizes the acidity of the vaginal tract.

SEMEN
● Sperms and secretion of accessory glands collectively known as seminal fluid or
semen.
● It is milky, semi-solid in nature
● pH – 7.35 – 7.5

Female reproductive system

Female reproductive organs:

1. The female reproductive system consists of the following organs:
● Ovaries
● Oviducts
● Uterus
● Vagina
Ovaries:
1. Ovaries are a part of the female reproductive system in humans.
2. There are two ovaries present in the abdominal cavity, near the kidneys in females.
3. They are responsible for the production of the egg cells also known as ova.
4. Upon maturity, the ovum is released into the oviduct by the ovaries.
Oviducts:
 1. The oviducts, also known as fallopian tubes are funnel-shaped structures that are present close to
each ovary.
2. They receive the eggs from the ovaries and carry them to the uterus.
Uterus:
1. The uterus is defined as a thick-walled muscular organ that serves as an opening for both the
oviducts.
2. During pregnancy, the baby develops inside the uterus.
Vagina:
1. The vagina is a narrow tubular structure in which the uterus opens.
2. It received the sperms of the male during copulation and also serves as the birth canal during the
child's birth.

Placenta

Placenta is a disc like structure that forms a connection between the embryo and the uterine wall. It is

consists of numerous villi that increases the surface area for absorption. It is an organ of exchange that

provides oxygen and nutrients to fetus and removes waste produced by fetus. It also serves as source of

progesterone and estrogen hormones.

What happens when an egg is not fertilized?

● When the egg is not fertilized, it is shredded off from the body and the menstrual cycle takes

place. Ovary releases one egg every month. At the same time, the uterus also prepares itself to

receive a fertilized egg. The endometrium lining becomes thick and spongy for carrying embryo.

It would nourish the embryo if fertilization took place. If the egg is not fertilized this lining

breaks. This results in the discharge of blood and mucous through the vagina. This menstrual

cycle lasts for around 5 to 7 days until all the debris of the endometrium along with blood is

discharged.

● Sexually transmitted diseases

 ● Sexually transmitted disease (STD) is used to refer a condition which passes from one person to

another through sexual contact.

● A person can come in contact of sexually transmitted disease by having unprotected vaginal, anal

or oral sex with someone who has the STD.

● STD may also be transmitted through sharing needles and breastfeeding (e.g. HIV).

● Some STD can be passed from a mother to baby before or during the birth. because of passing the

infection through the placenta or birth canal. e.g.

● Syphilis is a bacterial infection. It is caused by Treponema pallidum bacteria.

The first symptom to syphilis is the appearance of a small round sore . It can develop on

genitals, anus or mouth. It is painless but very infectious.

● AIDS is a viral infection. It is caused by the Human immunodeficiency virus(HIV). HIV can

damage the immune system

● Gonorrhea :It is a bacterial and (sexually transmitted) disease

● Gonorrhea is characterized by inflammation of mucous membrane of urogenital tract so the

patient feels a burning sensation during urination.