International Journal of Training and Development 16:1 ISSN 1360-3736 doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2419.2011.00392.

The relationship between job dissatisfaction and training transfer

Susanne Jodlbauer, Eva Selenko, Bernad Batinic and Barbara Stiglbauer
The high rates of training transfer failure that prevail still puzzle practitioners as well as researchers. The central aim of the present study is to analyze the relatively under-researched role of job dissatisfaction in the training transfer process. Specically, we expect that job dissatisfaction would have a negative effect on transfer but that this effect would be buffered by the expectation of positive transfer consequences and motivation to transfer. To test these hypotheses, 220 participants in different training programs completed an online questionnaire 1 year after training. The results support our assumptions. They reveal that job dissatisfaction has a detrimental effect on training transfer, but that motivation to transfer and the expectation of positive transfer consequences have a buffering effect. The more motivated a person is towards transfer, the less negative is the effect of job dissatisfaction on actual transfer, but only if a person expects positive outcomes from transfer, such as acknowledgment or rewards. The ndings are discussed in relation to existing training transfer models, as well as models of job (dis)satisfaction. According to the American Society for Training and Development (2008), US companies spent about $1103 per employee and $134.39 billion in total in 2007 to enhance their employees skills and competencies. However, approximately 40 percent of participants of job-related training programs fail to transfer newly acquired knowledge and skills to the job context immediately after training, and altogether only 50 percent of training investments result in organizational or individual improvements (Saks, 2002). Considering, on the one hand, the extent of training investments made by
Susanne Jodlbauer, Research Associate, Doctoral Student, Department of Education and Psychology, Johannes Kepler University of Linz, Austria. Email: susanne.jodlbauer@jku.at. Eva Selenko, PostDoctoral Research Associate, Department of Education and Psychology, Johannes Kepler University of Linz, Austria. Email: eva.selenko@jku.at. Bernad Batinic, Professor, Work, Organizational and Media Psychology, Department of Education and Psychology, Johannes Kepler University of Linz, Austria. Email: bernad.batinic@jku.at. Barbara Stiglbauer, Research Associate, Doctoral Student, Department of Education and Psychology, Johannes Kepler University of Linz, Austria. Email: barbara.stiglbauer@jku.at.
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companies each year and, on the other, the high rates of transfer failure, there is a need for more knowledge on the factors affecting the transfer process. Against this background, the underlying question that prompts this paper is: why do learning investments still yield decient results and what are the reasons for the failure to transfer training outcomes. The specic purpose of the study is to examine the role of job dissatisfaction as a potential direct and moderating factor in the process of training transfer, and to contribute to a more complete picture of the conditions underlying the failure to transfer the benets of training to the actual work process thereby. Job (dis)satisfaction is a prominent factor in industrial and organizational psychology research because of its inuence on the work context (Kinicki et al., 2002; Locke, 1976). Research on both its antecedents and its consequences goes back to the mid-20th century (e.g. Aiken & Hage, 1966; Blauner, 1964; Brayeld & Crockett, 1955; Brayeld & Rothe, 1951; Herzberg et al., 1957; Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985; Kanungo, 1979; Seeman, 1959). Whereas job satisfaction has been related to a variety of benecial outcome variables such as productivity (Harter et al., 2002), job motivation (Kinicki et al., 2002) or increased organizational citizenship behavior (LePine et al., 2002; Schmit & Alscheid, 1995), job dissatisfaction has been found to have a variety of detrimental effects such as enhanced turnover intentions (Hom & Griffeth, 1991; Hom & Kinicki, 2001; Kankaanranta et al., 2007; Wheeler et al., 2007; Wong, 1989), absenteeism (Staw, 1984), negative work-related emotions such as anger directed at the supervisor (Fitzgerald et al., 2003), less satised clients/patients (McHugh et al., 2011), a reduced working morale (Schaefer & Moos, 1996) as well as a signicant neglect of in-rule job duties (Turnley & Feldman, 2000). However, the effects of job satisfaction and/or job dissatisfaction on training transfer remain somewhat unclear. Whereas some positive effects of job satisfaction on motivation to transfer have been reported (Egan et al., 2004), so far, research on the impact of job (dis)satisfaction on training transfer remains limited. Considering the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on the fulllment of in-role job duties (Turnley & Feldman, 2000), a similar negative effect on the fulllment of extra-role behavior such as the implementation of newly learned knowledge and skills might be expected. According to this reasoning, the willingness to make an extra effort by adopting the newly gained skills within the workplace should be lower among dissatised employees than among satised. In reality, job dissatisfaction is, to some extent, inevitable as organizations cannot guarantee constant high job satisfaction (Rusbult et al., 1988). Consequently, dissatised employees are likely to always make up a proportion, possibly a signicant proportion, of the training clientele, if they participate at all. The question that therefore arises is not only one of whether or not job dissatisfaction has a negative effect on training transfer, but whether or not this negative effect can be compensated or even turned into something positive under certain circumstances. According to Staw (1984), discontentment with the work situation is not always detrimental; it can also be the spark to alter something. As suggested by Hirschman (1970, 1974), persons in dissatisfying jobs can react in a range of different ways: they might quit their job (exit), resign themselves to the situation (loyalty) or take action by trying to change the unsatisfactory situation (voice). In subsequent studies by Rusbult et al. (1982) and by Rusbult and Zembrodt (1983), a further category was added to the typology of responses to dissatisfaction, dened as neglect and referring to the neglect of duties as a further response to feelings of dissatisfaction. Support for the fourcategory typology of responses to job dissatisfaction along the two evaluative dimensions constructive/destructive and active/passive has been provided in a number of empirical studies (e.g. Farrell, 1983; Lee & Whitford, 2007; Rusbult et al., 1988). As the acquisition and application of new knowledge, skills and behavioral patterns may be seen as an opportunity to change something, we assume, therefore, that job dissatisfaction will be less destructive where a trainee regards the transfer of training as a chance to overcome or change his or her unsatisfactory work situation. Training transfer is dened by Baldwin and Ford (1988, p. 63) as [. . .] learned behavior [that] is generalized to the job context and maintained over a period of time on the job and has been a topic of great interest since the 1950s (e.g. Baldwin & Ford, 40 International Journal of Training and Development
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1988; Burke & Hutchins, 2009; Mosel, 1957; Taylor, 1952). Despite the signicant number of studies (>170; for an overview, see Burke & Hutchins, 2009), there is still no agreement on the number or nature of factors inuencing transfer nor of the way in which they interact with each other, although Grossman and Salas (2011) have attempted to highlight the most important factors. Baldwin and Fords (1988) training transfer model identies three categories of inuencing factor: trainee characteristics, training design characteristics and characteristics of the work environment (e.g. Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Holton, 2005; Holton et al., 2000). All of these three categories play an important role in training transfer by moderating, mediating or directly predicting transfer success. However, one factor that has been identied as a particularly important predictor of training transfer and which has received a large amount of attention (cf. Burke & Hutchins, 2009) is the trainee characteristic motivation to transfer (for a recent review, see Gegenfurtner et al., 2009). The relationship between the motivation of an individual and his/her work-related behavior has attracted a great deal of attention since the early 20th century (e.g. Herzberg et al., 1959; Maslow, 1943; Mnsterberg, 1913). Motivation to transfer, which has been found to be especially important in the post-training phase (Holton et al., 2000; Noe, 1986), is a specic aspect of motivation related to the eld of training, and is dened as [. . .] trainees desire to use the knowledge and skills mastered in the training program on the job (Noe, 1986, p. 743). In a study by Ford (1997), for instance, self-reports of motivation to use trained knowledge and skills emerged as a crucial factor in predicting training transfer. Axtell et al. (1997) described motivation to transfer as the key variable in determining the transfer of interpersonal skills after 1 month, and Holton et al. (2000) ultimately dened motivation to transfer as a central variable in their learning transfer model affecting post-training individual performance. Given the signicance of motivation to transfer within the transfer process, we expect not only a direct effect, but also a moderating effect of motivation to transfer on the relationship between job dissatisfaction and actual training transfer. Dissatised employees with a high motivation to transfer may regard the adoption of new techniques, skills and attitudes as an effective solution to put an end to their unfortunate work situation, wherefore a high motivation to transfer should buffer the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on training transfer. In other words, even if employees are dissatised with their job, they may still make the effort to transfer the newly gained knowledge to the workplace, if their motivation to transfer is sufciently high. This hypothesized moderation effect is expected to buffer the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on training transfer and mitigate the loss of newly gained knowledge and behavioral patterns. According to Vrooms expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964), a high motivation to transfer alone may not be enough to encourage dissatised employees to transfer their training to the workplace. Vroom claims that people estimate the likelihood that a particular act will precede a particular outcome and decide then on the basis of that result. Another important element affecting an individuals behavior is, therefore, the expectation of positive consequences following the behavior, and the valence of these consequences for the individual. There are indications that this mechanism might also be salient in the training transfer process (Colquitt et al., 2000; Holton, 1996; Porter & Lawler, 1968). The more trainees believe that training transfer will lead to certain positive outcomes and the higher they value these outcomes, the more likely it is that they will use the training in work. Positively valued outcomes of training transfer could be, for instance, increased responsibility, acknowledgment or promotion (Holton et al., 2000; Kauffeld et al., 2008). There are several studies showing that anticipation that use of the newly acquired skills and abilities will be acknowledged by the organization plays a major role in transfer process (e.g. Baldwin et al., 1991; Holton et al., 2007, 2000). The relevance of an appreciative transfer climate was also pointed out by Clarke (2002), who demonstrated that employees who expected to benet from training in terms of improved job or career prospects showed more transfer of the learned skills than those who did not. According to him, clear signals sent by supervisors regarding the role and value of training motivate employees to participate in training programs in the rst place and to ultimately use the newly learned skills in the workplace. The anticipation Job dissatisfaction and training transfer
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of positive outcomes in the form of recognition, rewards, enhanced responsibility or even promotion acts thereby as a signicant amplier of training transfer (Tracey & Tews, 2005). All of the above studies illustrate the signicance of the anticipation of positive consequences in the transfer process; however, whether or not the anticipation of appreciation and rewards can buffer the presumed negative effect of job dissatisfaction on training transfer remains unknown. If Vrooms expectancy theory is considered along with the assumption that a high motivation to transfer buffers the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on training transfer, then this suggests that any expectation the individual holds of positive transfer consequences should be taken into account alongside motivation to transfer in attempting to identify a mechanism by which to minimize the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on training transfer. A positive effect of an acknowledging organizational environment on turning job dissatisfaction into something positive could already be shown by Zhou and George (2001) in terms of inter-organizational creativity. In line with ndings from the job dissatisfaction literature (Hirschman, 1970; Rusbult & Zembrodt, 1983; Rusbult et al., 1988; Staw, 1984), their study revealed that dissatised employees responded actively to their dissatisfaction by showing increased creativity (cf. voice, Hirschman, 1970), if they knew that their effort was acknowledged. Considering a similar buffering effect of the anticipation of acknowledgment on the relationship between job dissatisfaction and training transfer, job dissatisfaction may be less detrimental if trainees know that their efforts in attending training and adapting the learning to the work context are appreciated by the organization. In order for employees to see training transfer as an effective way out of their dissatisfying work situation and to turn their motivation to transfer into actual transfer behavior, we assume that there has to be some reassurance that training transfer is acknowledged on behalf of the company by, for example, a manager, supervisor or co-workers. The higher the probability that successful transfer will lead to positive consequences and the higher the value of these anticipated consequences, the more likely it is that dissatised employees with a high motivation to transfer will actually try to apply the newly acquired skills and competencies in their daily work. Thus, on the basis of Vrooms expectancy theory and the ndings of Zhou and George, we suggest that in addition to a high motivation to transfer, an acknowledging climate is necessary to buffer the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on transfer. Specically, we expect the buffering effect of motivation to transfer to be facilitated by the expectation of positive transfer consequences. This means that the moderation effect of motivation to transfer on the relationship between job dissatisfaction and actual transfer may vary depending on the strength of the positive consequence anticipation subsequent to training transfer. If acknowledgment and/or rewards, such as increased responsibility, nancial rewards or promotion, is/are anticipated as a consequence of transfer, a high motivation to transfer should buffer the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on actual transfer; if no positive consequences are expected by the employees, no buffering effect of motivation to transfer should appear. To sum up, our hypotheses are as follows: We propose that trainees who are dissatised with their job transfer fewer skills and less knowledge to the job than trainees who are satised with their job (Hypothesis 1). A high motivation to transfer, on the other hand, should be positively related with an increase in the application of trained skills and knowledge on the job (Hypothesis 2). Furthermore, we propose that the negative relationship between job dissatisfaction and actual implementation is moderated and thereby buffered by a high motivation to transfer. In detail, it is assumed that trainees who are dissatised at work but highly motivated to apply the newly gained knowledge and skills transfer more than dissatised trainees without such a high motivation to transfer (Hypothesis 3). Additionally, we postulate that the moderating effect of motivation to transfer on the relationship between job dissatisfaction and actual transfer only appears if there are positive outcome expectations. More precisely, only if positive outcomes are expected, 42 International Journal of Training and Development
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Motivation to Transfer Expectation of Positive Transfer Consequences Hyp. 4 Hyp. 2 (+)

Hyp. 3

Job Dissatisfaction Hyp. 1 (-)

Implementation Rate

Figure 1: Visualization of the hypotheses. motivation to transfer should moderate the relationship between job dissatisfaction and actual transfer (Hypothesis 4). For an illustration of the hypotheses, see Figure 1.

Method
Participants Data collection was carried out in cooperation with a national institute for further education belonging to the Austrian Federal Economic Chamber. Participants of a variety of courses received an email invitation to complete an online questionnaire about 1 year after training (Mdn = 365, IQR = 182) and lled it in at home. Altogether, 671 trainees took part in the study; given that 83 participants were unemployed at the moment of the survey and 209 did not complete the whole survey, 292 participants had to be excluded from analyses. Furthermore, because of the great variation in the number of suggestions proposed (ranging from 0 to 200, M = 6.13, standard deviation [SD] = 16.22, Mdn = 2.00) and actually implemented at the workplace (min = 0, max = 100, M = 3.68, SD = 10.36, Mdn = 1.00), the upper 10 percent of participants (n = 81) were excluded from further analyses in order to reduce distortion of results. The courses attended by the participants covered a variety of topics ranging from health issues and human resource management, to economics and language courses. Analyses were conducted to control for transfer differences based on the content of training attended by participants. With the exception of participants of language courses, participants did not differ in the degree of actual transfer (F(6, 382) = 1.25, p > 0.05). Language course participants reported a smaller motivation to transfer as well as a lower implementation rate. Given that in comparison to other courses, the reason for attending a language course is more often personal than work related, transfer to the job may not always be an issue. Hence, participants of language courses (n = 78) were excluded from further analysis. Thus, after data cleansing, the sample for this study consisted of 220 adults (47 percent women) ranging from 18 to 59 years old (M = 33.14, SD = 9.39). Vocational elds occupied by the participants were quite mixed, ranging from the health (4 percent) and human resource sector (16 percent), to the technical eld (29 percent), and economics (32 percent); the remaining 19 percent did not indicate their occupation. 32.9 percent of participants reported being in a managerial position. Eighty percent of the training participants decided to take part in training themselves, 17 percent attended it at the managers instigation, and 3 percent did not indicate whose decision it was. For 46 percent of the participants, training expenses were covered by their respective organization, 50 percent had to pay for the training themselves, 4 percent did not indicate who covered their expenses. Twelve percent of the participants attended the training during their regular working hours, 80 percent outside their normal working hours; the remaining 8 percent did not answer this question. Job dissatisfaction and training transfer
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Measures Implementation rate To measure the actual number of implementations brought about as a consequence of training, participants were asked to indicate (1) the total number of suggestions made back at the workplace and (2) how many of these were actually implemented. Both items were adapted from Kauffeld et al.s (2009) Measurement-Success-Inventory. After the earlier mentioned exclusion of participants who deviated signicantly from the average number of indicated suggestions, trainees average indication of proposed suggestions was 1.81 (SD = 3.23, Mdn = 1.00), and the average of implemented suggestions 1.01 (SD = 1.45, Mdn = 0.00). The degree of transfer was dened in the present study by the number of implemented suggestions per suggestions proposed at the workplace, ranging from 0 (no implementation per suggestion) to 1 (full implementation of all suggestions), M = 0.55, SD = 0.37, Mdn = 0.60. Job dissatisfaction measure Job dissatisfaction was measured by Brayeld and Rothes (1951) Index of Job Satisfaction (IJS), which can be applied for measuring both job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction. In the present study, Judge et al.s (1998) shortened version was used, including ve items (Cronbachs a = 0.88). Whereas a high total score indicates job satisfaction, a low total score represents job dissatisfaction (cf. Aschenbrener et al., 2007; Brayeld & Rothe, 1951). For the purpose of our analysis, items were recoded, so that high values indicated job dissatisfaction and low values indicated job satisfaction. The shortened IJS includes items such as, Most days I am enthusiastic about my work (reverse scored), or Each day of work seems like it will never end, and answers were given on a 7-point Likert scale (I totally agree to I totally disagree). Motivation to transfer Motivation to transfer was assessed by a subscale of the German version (Kauffeld et al., 2008) of the Learning-Transfer-System-Inventory (LTSI) (Holton et al., 2000). Examples of the four-item scale (Cronbachs a = 0.86) are I get excited when I think about trying to use my new learning on my job, or Im motivated to apply the new skills I gained in the training on my job. Responses were scored on a 5-point Likert scale (I totally agree to I totally disagree). Expected positive transfer consequences To assess a trainees expectation of positive personal consequences subsequently to transfer, Kauffeld et al.s (2008) translated version of Holton et al.s (2000) LTSI threeitem subscale personal outcomes positive (Cronbachs a = 0.79) was used. Sample items are: Employees in this organization receive various perks when they utilize newly learned skills on the job or If I use this training I am more likely to be rewarded. Responses were again scored on a 5-point Likert scale (I totally agree to I totally disagree).

Results
The central interest of this study was to establish whether or not the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on actual transfer is moderated and thereby compensated by motivation to transfer, and furthermore, whether or not this moderation effect is stable or inhibited under certain conditions. In detail, we tested whether or not the buffering effect of motivation to transfer on the relationship between job dissatisfaction and the implementation rate varies depending on the condition of whether or not positive consequences subsequent to transfer can be expected. An inspection of the correlation coefcients (see Table 1) showed that none of the control variables (age, gender, management function, time since training, training investment, training instigation, time of training attendance or training duration) was correlated with implementation rate. Consequently, all control variables were excluded from further analysis. 44 International Journal of Training and Development
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Table 1: Intercorrelations between implementation rate, motivation to transfer, job dissatisfaction, expected positive consequences and control variables (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)

(1)

(1) Sex (2) Age (3) Management function (4) Time since training (5) Duration of training (6) Training instigation (7) Training investments (8) Time of Tr. attendance (9) Implementation rate (10) Motivation to transfer (11) Job dissatisfaction (12) Pos. consequence exp. 0.37** 0.12 -0.04 -0.01 -0.13 -0.03 0.05 -0.04 0.01 -0.04 0.05 0.14 -0.05 -0.01 -0.03 0.05 -0.10 0.12 0.10 0.11 0.01 0.07 0.11 -0.02 -0.10 0.07 -0.16 0.02 0.05 -0.06 -0.02 -0.22 0.07 0.22** 0.00 0.31*** -0.03 0.01 -0.03 -0.05 -0.02 0.11 -0.08 -0.15 0.01 0.01 -0.02 -0.01 0.13 -0.09

-0.05 0.21** 0.10 0.35** 0.11 0.10 -0.02 -0.04 -0.10 -0.00 -0.08

0.18* -0.29** 0.24**

-0.23** 0.23**

-0.45**

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Note: n = 220. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001. Pos. consequence exp. = positive consequence expectations, Time of Tr. attendance = time of training attendance.

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To test our hypotheses, a hierarchical linear regression analysis with implementation rate as dependent variable was conducted. In the rst step, the independent effect of job dissatisfaction on transfer was measured (Hypothesis 1). As expected, a signicant negative relationship emerged between job dissatisfaction and the number of implementations made back on the job (B = -0.09, SEB (Standard Error of Coefcient B) = 0.02, b = -0.28, p < 0.001), accounting for 8 percent of the variance, F(1, 219) = 18.32, p < 0.001 (see Table 2). Step 2 of the hierarchical regression analysis tested for the independent effect of motivation to transfer as well as for positive consequence expectations on implementation rate, DF(3, 217) = 2.86, p = 0.059. In line with Hypothesis 2, results revealed a signicant positive relationship between motivation to transfer and training transfer, B = 0.06, SEB = 0.04, b = 0.13, p = 0.047. No signicant effect was found for the expectations of positive transfer consequences on implementation rate, B = 0.03, SEB = 0.03, b = 0.07, p = 0.342. In the third step, both two-way interaction terms, job dissatisfaction and motivation to transfer as well as job dissatisfaction and positive consequence expectations, were added to the hierarchical regression analysis. Consistent with Hypothesis 3, analysis revealed a signicant interaction effect between job dissatisfaction and motivation to transfer (B = 0.06, SEB = 0.03, b = 0.15, p = 0.037), indicating a buffering effect of motivation to transfer on the relationship between job dissatisfaction and the actual amount of implementations made (see Figure 2). No signicant effect emerged for the interaction between job dissatisfaction and positive consequence expectations, B = 0.03, SEB = 0.02, b = 0.11, p = 0.134. By adding the interaction terms, 5 percent incremental variance of the actual implementation rate was explained, DF(5, 215) = 5.60, p = 0.004. In order to interpret the buffering effect of motivation to transfer on the relationship between job dissatisfaction and actual transfer and to test our Hypothesis 4, the threeway interaction between job dissatisfaction, motivation to transfer and expected positive consequences was added in step 4 of the regression. Supporting our hypothesis, results revealed a signicant three-way interaction effect between motivation to transfer, job dissatisfaction and expected positive consequences (B = 0.08, SEB = 0.03, b = 0.24, p = 0.005). Overall, step 4 of the hierarchical regression analysis explained signicant incremental variance (DR2 = 0.03, DF(6, 214) = 7.78, p = 0.006), accounting for 18 percent of the variance of the implementations made back on the job.
0.8

0.7 motivation to transfer low Implementation rate 0.6 motivation to transfer high

0.5

0.4

0.3 low Job dissatisfaction high

Figure 2: Simple slopes of motivation to transfer predicting actual training transfer at 1 standard deviation below and above the mean of job (dis)satisfaction. 46 International Journal of Training and Development
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To analyze the nature of the three-way interaction, simple slopes were tested (at plus/min 1 SD) (Aiken & West, 1991) and slope differences were measured (Dawson & Richter, 2006). Figure 3 depicts the signicant three-way interaction by plotting the regression lines separately for the case of high positive consequence expectations (Figure 3a) and low positive consequence expectations (Figure 3b). As assumed, analysis for slope differences revealed a signicant difference between the effect of motivation to transfer on the relationship between job dissatisfaction and the actual implementation rate in circumstances of high versus low positive consequence expectations, t(214) = 3.12, p = 0.002. Only in the case of high positive consequence expectations and high motivation to transfer did dissatised employees transfer the same
(a)
0.8

0.7

motivation to transfer low motivation to transfer high

Implementation rate

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3 low Job dissatisfaction high

(b)

0.8

0.7

Implementation rate

motivation to transfer low 0.6 motivation to transfer high

0.5

0.4

0.3 low Job dissatisfaction high

Figure 3: Simple slopes of motivation to transfer predicting actual training transfer at 1 standard deviation (SD) below and above the mean of job (dis)satisfaction, in the case of (a) high and (b) low expected positive transfer consequences. Job dissatisfaction and training transfer
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amount than satised employees, t(214) = 1.44, p = 0.152. If motivation to transfer was low, high positive consequence expectations could not buffer the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on training transfer indicated by the actual number of implemented suggestions, t(214) = -4.41, p < 0.001 (slope difference between high and low motivation to transfer in case of high consequence expectations: t(214) = 2.98, p = 0.003). In the case of low positive consequence expectations, on the other hand, a signicant decrease of training transfer in case of job dissatisfaction occurs, no matter if motivation to transfer is high (t(214) = -2.81, p = 0.005), or low t(214) = -3.76, p < 0.001 (slope difference between high and low motivation to transfer in case of low consequence expectations: t(214) = 0.34, p = 0.731). As is apparent, the buffering effect of motivation to transfer on the relationship between job dissatisfaction and training transfer exists only in the case of high positive consequence expectations. Evidently, if no positive consequences were expected subsequent to transfer, dissatised employees transferred signicantly less than persons who were satised with their job, irrespective of how high or low their motivation to transfer was. In other words, motivation to transfer only has an impact if dissatised persons expect to gain positive rewards or acknowledgment as a consequence of transfer. Table 2 summarizes the results of the hierarchical linear multiple regression analysis.

Discussion
Given that training investments do not always result in the desired transfer success, the present study looked at this problem from a different angle by focusing on a possible inhibitor of training transfer. Because of the high number of studies demonstrating a detrimental effect of job dissatisfaction on work-related attitudes and work-relevant behavior (Fitzgerald et al., 2003; Hom & Griffeth, 1991; Hom & Kinicki, 2001; Turnley & Feldman, 2000; Wheeler et al., 2007), a similar negative effect was expected for training transfer. As expected, job dissatisfaction was found to be negatively (inversely) related to training transfer. Trainees who were dissatised with their work situation proposed and implemented signicantly fewer suggestions back at the workplace than trainees who were satised with their work situation. The major aim of this study was, however, to investigate which conditions and circumstances would buffer the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on training transfer. In line with earlier research (Gegenfurtner et al., 2009), motivation to transfer emerged to have a positive effect on training transfer. Trainees who were motivated to transfer subsequently to training proposed and implemented more training-related suggestions to their daily work than trainees with low levels of motivation to transfer. Beyond that, we proposed that a high motivation to transfer might buffer the negative relationship between job dissatisfaction and training transfer. Consistent with our assumption, the results revealed a signicant moderation effect of motivation to transfer on the relationship between job dissatisfaction and training transfer, indicating a signicant increase in transfer success among highly motivated dissatised employees in comparison to low-motivated dissatised employees. According to our last hypothesis, this buffering effect should only be visible under certain circumstances, that is, if employees expect positive consequences from transfer, such as acknowledgment or rewards. As hypothesized, motivation to transfer appeared to buffer the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on training transfer only if employees expected adequate positive personal outcomes. If no positive consequences were anticipated, a high motivation to transfer was no longer able to buffer the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on training transfer. In other words, dissatised employees proposed and implemented the same amount of suggestions as satised employees only where they had both a high motivation to transfer and high expectations of positive transfer consequences. This result is in line with earlier research, such as Zhou and Georges (2001) ndings concerning the buffering effect of an acknowledging organizational environment on the relation between job dissatisfaction and creativity, and both Noes (1986) and 48 International Journal of Training and Development
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Table 2: Results of a hierarchical regression analysis predicting the actual implementation rate Step 1 SEB 0.02 -0.28*** 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 -0.07 0.06 0.03 -0.23** 0.13* 0.07 -0.05 0.08 0.02 b B SEB B SEB b b -0.17* 0.16* 0.06 0.15* 0.11 Step 2 Step 3 B -0.07 0.10 0.04 0.09 0.03 0.08 Step 4 SEB 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 b -0.24** 0.21** 0.10 0.24** 0.10 0.23**

Job dissatisfaction Motivation to transfer Positive consequence expectations JobDissatisf *MotivTr JobDissatisf*PosConsExp MotivTr*JobDissatisf* PosConsExp

-0.09

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Note: Regression results: Step 1 (R2 = 0.08, F = 18.32***), Step 2 (R2 = 0.10, DR2 = 0.02, DF = 2.86), Step 3 (R2 = 0.15, DR2 = 0.05, DF = 5.60**), Step 3 (R2 = 0.18, DR2 = 0.03, DF = 7.78**); n = 220. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. SEB = Standard Error of Coefcient B; JobDissatisf = job dissatisfaction, MotivTr = motivation to transfer, PosConsExp = positive consequence expectations.

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Rouiller and Goldsteins (1993) claims that efforts to utilize learned behavior depend upon the degree of perceived support. Apparently, dissatised employees need a certain degree of organizational recognition to believe in their possibilities to change something and to turn their motivation to transfer into actual transfer. In accordance with this assumption, Bruggemann et al. (1975) as well as Bssing and colleagues (Bssing, 1992; Bssing & Bissels, 1998; Bssing et al., 2000) claimed that dissatised employees who perceive themselves to be in control over the situation on the one hand and to have the ability to solve problems in a new manner on the other are more likely to take action to increase their level of contentment than dissatised employees without these factors. To sum up, the current study was able to demonstrate that job dissatisfaction has a similar negative effect on training transfer to various other work-related variables. This negative effect can result in a signicantly lower amount of training transfer, unless trainees anticipate positive consequences to transfer and are highly motivated to transfer their newly gained skills and knowledge. Considering the extent of investments made by organizations, and the fact that job dissatisfaction is a phenomenon that can occur even in the most popular companies, action must be taken to at least minimize this negative effect. As indicated by the results, organizations could motivate their employees to transfer the acquired skills by announcing tokens of recognition (e.g. appreciation, promotion, pay raise, increase in responsibility) where training successful transferred. By discussing the purpose of training with the affected employees prior to training, giving them a better idea of the value of transferring the learned knowledge to the job context, and clarifying possible positive consequences of training transfer for their career, the negative consequences of job dissatisfaction might be counteracted. Undoubtedly, there are limitations to our ndings. First of all, it should be noted that the ndings are correlational only. Although there are studies that indicate that it is the motivation to transfer and the expectation of positive transfer consequences that inuence training transfer than vice versa (for a review, see Gegenfurtner et al., 2009; Rouiller & Goldstein, 1993), the results presented in this study do not warrant causal interpretation. Furthermore, because apart from the current study little is known on the effect of job dissatisfaction on training transfer, further investigation of this relationship is warranted. To ensure the proposed causality direction and post-training improvements, longitudinal data would be needed; ideally including not only a pre-assessment of the variables found to affect transfer success, but also a knowledge/skill pre-test on the content acquired in training. Although we controlled for a relatively large number of variables (e.g. content validity of training, perceived trainer effectiveness, quality of training material), we certainly cannot rule out the inuence of third variables buffering the negative effect of job dissatisfaction on training transfer. Including other organizational climate characteristics such as supervisor or co-worker support might be helpful to clarify the impact of the work environment. Finally, it should be noted that our ndings are based on measures of self-report only. In the present large-scale study, which covered a variety of training programs and occupational areas, this seemed the only feasible method, but future studies are now required to test current ndings by assessing transfer with the help of objective transfer measures, such as supervisor ratings, pre-/post-tests of the respective key data and/or repeated work-related transfer controls. Despite these limitations, we believe that the results of the current study contribute to knowledge on training transfer by illustrating the role of job dissatisfaction in transfer process. Findings suggest that even if employees are currently dissatised, training can still be effective given that an organization supports the motivation to transfer by promising positive transfer consequences. Although there certainly is a destructive side of job dissatisfaction, our results demonstrate that organizations can counterbalance this negative effect on training transfer by supporting and acknowledging their employees effort to transfer their newly gained knowledge and skills to their daily work life. 50 International Journal of Training and Development
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