Figure 1: Potential difference in a uniform electric field

PHYSICS SHORT NOTE FOR GRADE-11 STUDENTS

Prepared by: ABDI B (M.sc )

DIRE DAWA, ETHIOPIA

December 23, 2024
 4. DYNAMICS

Dynamics: is the subdivision of mechanics that deals with the motion of objects in
relation to the physical factor that causes the motion, the force.

4.1. The Concept of Force and Newton’s Laws of motion

Force is an external agent of a body that changes state of rest or state of motion of that
body. It is is a push or a pull exerted on a body. Force is a vector quantity; hence, it
has both magnitude and direction. The SI unit of measurement of force is newton (N).
A force can be either a contact force or a field force. Forces that result from physical
contact between two bodies are called contact forces. For examples:

ˆ A girl stretching a spring,

ˆ A man pulling a box on the floor and

ˆ A girl kicking a ball are few examples of contact forces.

Forces like gravitational attraction between the Sun and the Earth, the electrostatic
force between charged particles, and magnetic force between a magnet and magnetic
substances that operate at a distance are known as field forces. Field forces are also
known as non-contact forces.
The known fundamental forces in nature are all field forces. These are, in order of
decreasing strength:

1. the strong nuclear force between subatomic particles;

2. the electromagnetic forces between electric charges;

3. the weak nuclear force, which arises in certain radioactive decay processes; and

4. the gravitational force between objects.

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4.2. Laws of Motion

4.2.1. Newton’s First Law of Motion

Newton’s first law of motion states that:
“An object at rest remains in a state of rest and an object in motion
continues in mo- tion along a straight line with constant speed unless an
external force acts upon it.”
Newton’s first law of motion is also called the law of inertia. The property of a body to
remain at rest or to remain in motion with constant velocity is called inertia.
Inertia: is the tendency of a body to oppose any change in its state of rest or its state
of uniform motion. Inertia of an object depends on its mass. An object with large mass
has large inertia and an object with small mass has small inertia. Hence, Large masses
have larger inertia than small masses.

Some examples of Applications of Newton’s first law

You have heard about the importance of safety belts to protect passengers in a car or in
an airplane or in a bus from severe damage during accidents. The probability of facing
severe injury to the extent of death when an accident occurs is very high on people who
do not fasten seat belts.
The physics behind Seat belts is Newton’s first law of motion. If a car is
moving with a speed of 80km/h, all passengers in the car are moving with a speed of
80km/h. If the car suddenly stops for reasonable case, the passenger who fastened seat
belt remains intact with the body of the car and stops with the car safely.
On the other case, the passenger who doesn’t fasten seat belt is in a loose state from
the body of the car and when the car abruptly stops, according to Newton’s first law,
the passenger continues its motion with 80km/h and collide to anything in front of him
which may lead to severe injury and death. Therefore, passengers should always fasten
their seatbelts.
The motion of a body can only be described relative to other bodies. Bodies with
which motion of a body can be compared are known as frames of reference. Frame of
reference can be catagorized as Inertial frame of reference and Non-inertial frame
of reference.

ˆ A frame reference which is at rest or moves with a constant velocity is known as

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 an inertial frame of reference. A stationary car or a car traveling at constant
velocity is an inertial frame of reference.

ˆ A car slowing down for a stoplight, or speeding up after the light turns green, will
be accelerating and is not an inertial frame of reference. Such a frame of reference
is known as Non-inertial frame of reference.

ˆ An inertial frame of reference is the type of frame where Newton’s laws hold true.

ˆ If no outside force is exerted on an object, it will continue to stay in state of rest

or uniform motion.

4.2.2. Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Newton’s second law of motion is closely related to and is a consequence of Newton’s
first law of motion. According to the first law, a body persists to its state of motion or
rest unless an unbalanced force acts on it.
What will happen to the object if an unbalanced force acts on it?
Newton’s Second Law of motion states that:
“When an unbalanced force acts on an object of mass m, the object
accelerates in the direction of the applied force with the magnitude of ac-
celeration directly proportional to the net applied force and inversely pro-
portional to the mass of the object.”
Mathematically,
F = ma (1)

, where F is the net force, m is mass of the object and a is acceleration of the body.
Net force: is the sum of two or more forces (Resultant force) Acceleration is the time
rate of change of velocity. It could happen when a body changes its speed or direction
of motion or both.
The SI unit of force, newton, in terms of the three basic quantities of measurement in
mechanics: length mass and time is expressed as

1N = 1kgm/s2

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 Examples

1. A force F applied to an object of mass m1 produces an acceleration of 3 m/s2 .

The same force applied to a second object of mass m2 produces an acceleration of
1 m/s2 .

m1
(a) What is the value of the ratio m2
?

(b) If m1 and m2 are combined, find their acceleration under the action of the
force F .

2. A 30 kg object undergoes an acceleration given by a = (3î + 4ĵ)m/s2 . Find the

resultant force acting on it and the magnitude of the resultant force.

3. An electron has an initial speed of 3 × 105 m/s. It travels in a straight line, and
its speed increases to 7 × 105 m/s in a distance of 5 cm. Assuming its acceleration
is constant, determine the force exerted on the electron.

4.2.3. Newton’s third Law of Motion

Newton’s third law states that:
“For every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.”
Action and reaction forces, though they are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction,
they act on two different bodies. Therefore they cannot be added to give a zero resultant.

Weight and the Gravitational Force

When an object is dropped, it accelerates toward the center of the Earth. According to
Newton’s second law, acceleration is the effect caused by a force. Therefore, a falling
~ . The
object, experiences a downward force known as weight of the object denoted by W
magnitude of the weight is the product of mass (m) and the value of acceleration due
to gravity g. Weight is a vector whose direction is always down towards the center of
the Earth.
~ = m~g
W (2)

Examples

1. Is weight of a body the same everywhere?

2. What is the weight of a 1 kg block on the surface of the moon where acceleration
due to gravity is only one-sixth of its value on the surface of the Earth?

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 3. If a man weighs 900 N on the Earth, what would he weigh on Jupiter, where the
acceleration due to gravity is 25.9 m/s2 ?

Normal Force
Normal forces is a force with which two objects push one another and acting perpen-
dicularly at the surface of contact. Weight and the normal force of an object are equal
only when the object is placed on a level surface.

Figure 2: Normal force and weight for a book placed on a horizontal surface.

~ = mg
FN = W (3)

The normal force is less than the weight when an object is placed on non-leveled surfaces
such as on an inclined plane.

FN

mg sin θ
mg cos θ
θ mg

FN = mg cos θ (4)

4.3. Frictional Force

Friction is a force that opposes the motion of one surface over another. It occurs when
two surfaces are in contact with each other and when one surface slides or attempts to
slide over the other. Friction occurs due to the roughness of the surfaces in contact.

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Friction has the following advantages:

ˆ Friction helps us to move while we walk by preventing us from slipping.

ˆ Without friction between the tires and the road we couldn’t drive or turn the car.

ˆ Without the frictional force exerted by the air on a body moving through it (air
drag), parachutes do not work.

ˆ Without friction nails would pull out, light bulbs would unscrew effortlessly.

There are two types of friction. These are: Static friction and Kinetic friction.
Static friction: is the friction between two surfaces when there is no movement.Suppose
you pull a block slightly along a table top, the block will not move with such a small
force that you apply. The force that keeps the block form sliding is the force of static
friction denoted by Fs and is directed opposite to the applied force.

Figure 3: The block at rest

Kinetic friction: is the friction between two surfaces when one of them is sliding over
the other. For example, when the block that you push begins to slide over the table,
there is force of kinetic friction denoted by Fk between the bottom surface of the block
and the table top.

Figure 4: The block in motion

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Frictional force is directly related to the normal force and its value depends upon the
property of the surfaces in contact. This property of material that resists motion is called
the coefficient of friction ( µ), which is defined as the ratio between the friction force
and the normal force. Mathematically,

Ff
µ= (5)
FN

, where µ is coefficient of friction, Ff is frictional force and FN is normal force.

Coefficient of friction is a dimensionless number. Frictional force is given by

Ff = µFN (6)

ˆ The maximum value of static friction is known as limiting friction and it is the
frictional force between the surfaces when the body just begins to slide. Static
friction is less than or equal to the product of coefficient of static friction ( µs )
and the normal force (FN ).
F s ≤ µs F N .

ˆ The maximum value of static friction is equal to µs FN , and this is called limiting
friction.

ˆ Kinetic friction is less than static friction.

Fk < Fs ⇒ µk < µs .

ˆ Unlike the static friction force, the kinetic friction force takes on any value between
zero and its maximum value of µk FN , depending on the magnitude of the applied
force. It could take any value between zero to its limiting value.

0 ≤ Fk ≤ µk FN .

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 Examples

1. An 8 kg block is placed on a horizontal surface. The coefficient of static friction and

that of kinetic friction between the block and surface are 0.4, and 0.35, respectively.

(a) What is the horizontal force just enough to start moving the block?

(b) What horizontal force must be applied on the block to keep it uniformly
accelerating at 4 m/s2 ?

2. A 6 kg block is placed on a ramp that makes an angle of 30◦ above the horizontal
as shown in the figure below. If the block remains at rest,

(a) what is the static friction that supports the block from sliding down the
ramp?

(b) what is the coefficient of static friction between the block and the ramp?

Figure 5: A block rests on a ramp

3. A concrete slab of mass 400 kg accelerates down a concrete slope inclined at 60◦ .
The coefficient of kinetic friction between the slab and slope is 0.60. Determine
the acceleration of the block.

Some applications of Newton’s Laws of motion

In order to easily understand and apply Newton’s laws to solve practical prob- lems
we need to know the use of a free-body diagram. A free-body diagram is a graphic,
dematerialized, symbolic representation of the body. In a free-body diagram, the size of
the arrow denotes the magnitude of the force. While the direction of the arrow denotes
the direction in which the force acts.

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 Worked Examples

1. Two blocks of identical materials are connected by a light string on a level surface
as shown in Figure 5. Assuming no friction between the blocks and the level
surface, find the acceleration of the masses and the tension in the connecting
string when the string attached to m1 is pulled to the right by a 36 N force. Use
m1 = 4kg and m2 = 8kg.

2. For the system of masses in Example 1 above, find the acceleration of the masses
if the coefficient of kinetic friction between each of the blocks and the level surface
is 0.25.

3. Two masses (m1 = 4kg and m2 = 6kg), are connected by a light cord that passes
over a massless, frictionless pulley as shown in Figure 6. This arrangement is
called Atwood’s machine and sometimes is used to measure the acceleration due
to gravity. Find the magnitude of acceleration of the two masses and the tension
in the cord.

Figure 6: System of masses m2 > m1 attached by a rope over a frictionless pulley

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Tension Forces
When an object attached to a string (or a cable) is pulled by means of a pulling force
exerted on the string, the force on the string is called a tension force.

ˆ When a mass is suspended from a vertical string, the mass is not moving (it is in
equilibrium), and its acceleration is zero.

Figure 7: Vertical Tension force on a static object

Applying Newton’s second law along the y direction, we have the following:

Fnet = ma = m(0) = 0,

⇒ T − mg = 0, ⇒ T = mg.

ˆ When an accelerating mass is suspended from a vertical string, it accelerates up-

ward by the string attached, and its acceleration is not zero. In this case the
tension supports the weight and also accelerates the object upward.

Figure 8: Vertical tension force on an accelerating mass

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 Applying Newton’s second law along the y axis we have the following

Fnet = ma =,

⇒ T − mg = ma, ⇒ T = mg + ma = m(g + a).

4.4. The First Condition of Equilibrium

If an object is either at rest or moves uniformly including translational (linear) as well
as rotational motion it is said to be in equilibrium. If a body is at rest or moves
at a constant speed in a fixed direction (constant velocity) then it is in translational
equilibrium. This statement defines the first condition of equilibrium.
If an object is in equilibrium, its acceleration is zero and according to Newton’s second
law of motion, the vector sum of all the forces acting on it must be zero.

X X X
F~ = 0. ⇒ F~x = 0& F~y = 0. (7)

ˆ Equilibrium: is a word that describes a state of rest or uniform motion along a

fixed direction of a body.

Examples

1. A traffic light weighing 100 N hangs from a vertical cable tied to two other cables
that are fastened to a support , as in Figure 8. The upper cables make angles of
37◦ and 53◦ with the horizontal. Find the tension in each of the three cables.

Figure 9: A traffic light suspended from two strings Solution

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 2. Mass m = 10kg is supported by two strings is in equilibrium as shown in Fig. 9.
Find the tension in the horizontal string. Take θ = 53◦

Figure 10: A mass in equilibrium

4.5. Work, Energy and Power

4.5.1. Work
Work: is the means of transferring energy from one body to another or a means of
transforming energy from one form to another. For instance, if you raise a load from
the floor to the top of a shelf, energy is transferred from your muscles to the load and
in the process chemical energy is converted into potential energy of the load.

Work done by a constant force

Work is done when a force acts on something that undergoes a displacement from
one position to another. Work is defined as the scalar product of the force and the
displacement produced.
W = F~ .S
~ = F S cos θ (8)

, where θ is the angle between F~ and S.

~

The SI unit of work is joule (J)

1J = 1N m = 1kgm2 /s2 .

Other non SI unit of work in the centimeter-gram-second (cgs) unit is called erg. The

12
relation between Joule and erg is given by

1J = 107 erg.

Examples

1. A box is pulled from point A to point B by a force of 10 N. If the distance between

the points is 6 m, what is the work done?

2. What is the work done on a block of mass 10kg, when a force of 20 N at 30◦ above
the horizontal displaces the block by 5m?

3. A man pushes a stalled vehicle with a steady force, F~ = (150î − 40ĵ)N and the
~ = (14î + 11ĵ) m. How much work does the man do
displacement of the car is S
on the car?

4. Calculate the total work done when a car of mass 1400kg pushed 50 m along a
rough horizontal road (µk = 0.3).

5. A man pulls a package along a horizontal floor with a force of 400 N at an angle
of 30◦ as shown in Figure 10. A constant frictional force of 100 N acts between
the package and the floor. Find the work done by each force acting on the sled
and the total work done by all the forces.

Figure 11: Worked done by friction

6. Can work done be positive, negative or zero? Specify the conditions in which work
can be positive, negative or zero.

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Work Done by the Gravitational Force
Work is often done against gravity. Whenever you lift up an object you are doing work
against the force of gravity. In this case the force you are working against is the weight
of the object. We can adapt our work done equation for working against gravity:

W = F S, F = Fg = mg

Wg = Fg × h = mgh

Examples

1. What is the work done in lifting a 60 kg mass vertically 3 m?

2. How much vertical force is required to lift a load vertically to a height of 3 m, if

the work done is 600 J?

3. Calculate the total work done in lifting a 20 kg load 2 m into the air

4. Consider a block of mass m is pushed up a rough inclined plane of angle θ by a

constant Force F parallel to the incline, as shown in Figure 11. The displacement
of the block up the incline is d. Find the work done

(a) by the applied force

(b) by the force of gravity

(c) by the normal force

(d) by the kinetic friction

Figure 12: A block is pushed up a rough inclined plane with a constant force F

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Work done by a variable force
Constant force: is a force that does not vary with time or position. Variable force
is force that varies with time or position.
Let us consider a varying force F acting on a body to displace the body along the x
axis. In this case using the expression W = F.S will not be appropriate. Instead we
calculate the infinitesimal work done by the variable force and add those values to get
the total work done.
When a variable force acts on a body and the force varies with posi-
tion(displacement), we plot the graph of displacement versus force to cal-
culate the total work done . The area under displacement versus force
graph is equal to the total work done by the variable force.

Worked Examples

1. A 7 kg particle experiences a force that varies with position as shown below. What
is the total work done by the force?

Figure 13: The block at rest

2. An object mass 20kg is subjected to a linear force, F (x) = 3x + 4, where F is in

Newtons and x is in meters.

(a) What is the work done as the object moves from x = 3m to x = 6m?

(b) What is the total work done as the object moves from x = 0 to x = 6m?

3. Show that the work required to stretch a spring (spring constant k) from initial
elongation x1 to a final elongation x2 is given by W = 12 k(x22 − x21 ).

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4.5.2. Energy

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. There are two types of enery: kinetic
energy and potential energy

Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses due to its motion. A body of mass m
moving with velocity v is said to have kinetic energy of

1
KE = mv 2 (9)
2

Work-energy Theorem

The work-energy Theorem states that:

“ The total work done on a body by external forces is related to the
body’s displacement that is, to changes in its position. But the total work
is also related to changes in the speed of the body.”
Mathematically, work-energy theorem is given by

1
W =M KE = KEf − KEi = m(Vf2 − Vi2 ). (10)
2

Potential energy

The energy of a body due to its relative position or shape is known as potential energy.
The energy due to the relative position of a body is called Gravitational potential
energy while the potential energy due to change in shape of the body is called Elastic
potential energy .
Gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m placed at a height above a reference
level is given by
GP E = mgh. (11)

Elastic potential energy of a body such as a spring of spring constant k that is stretched
through x is given by
1
EP E = kx2 . (12)
2

The sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of a body is termed as the total

16
mechanical energy of the body.

M E = KE + P E (13)

For either rise or fall, the change in gravitational potential energy M U is defined as
being equal to the negative of the work done on the ball by the gravitational force.

M U = −W ⇒ Wg = − M U. (14)

Conservative and non-conservative Forces

There are generally two kinds of forces namely, Conservative forces and non-conservative
forces. Conservative force: is a force in which work done is independent of the
path followed, whereas Non-conservative force is a force in which work done is path
dependent. Conservative forces have these two equivalent properties:

ˆ The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving between any two
points is independent of the path taken by the particle.

ˆ The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving through any closed
path is zero. (A closed path is one in which the beginning and end points are
identical).

ˆ Gravitational force and the force that a spring exerts on any object attached to
the spring are conservative forces.

Non-conservative force: is a force that does work when a body moves on a closed
path. The work done by a non-conservative force on a particle moving through any
closed path is not zero. Non-conservative force is also known as dissipative force. A
dissipative force causes mechanical energy to be lost from a body when it is moving.

ˆ Non-conservative forces acting within a system cause a change in the mechanical

energy (ME) of the system.

ˆ The work done on a system by a non-conservative force is equal to the change in

mechanical energy of the system.

ˆ Typical example of non-conservative force is frictional force.

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ˆ Work done by frictional force is equal work done by dissipative force.

Wf riction = Wdiss =M M E,

⇒ Fk d =M KE+ M P E

,Where Fk is frictional force and d is the distance through which frictional force
acted.
⇒ Fk d = (KEf − KEi ) + (P Ef − P Ei )

Worked Examples

1. When the speed of an object doubles and its mass remains constant, what will be
its kinetic energy ?

2. How fast must a 1 kg ball move in order to have a kinetic energy of 50 J?

3. Two bodies, A and B, have equal kinetic energies. The mass of A is nine times
that of B. What is the ratio of the momentum of A to that of B?

4. At what height above the ground must a mass of 10 kg be to have a potential

energy equal in value to the kinetic energy possessed by a mass of 10 kg moving
with a velocity of 20 m/s? (take g = 10m/s2 )

5. An object of mass 1kg is moving with a speed of 2m/s was acted on by a force
that produces an acceleration of 2m/s2 . What is work done on the object if the
force is exerted on the object for 2 seconds in its direction of motion?

6. A cart of mass 5kg is moving horizontally at 6m/s. In order to change its speed
to 10m/s, what must be the net work done on the cart?

7. A force of 7N, making an angle θ with the horizantal, acting on an object displaces
it by 0.5m along the horizontal direction. If the object gains K.E. of 2J, what is
the horizontal component of the force ?

8. An ideal spring has a force constant of 820 m. How far should one deform it from
its equilibrium length so that 0.100 J of energy is stored?

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4.5.3. Power
Power: is the rate of conversion of energy or the rate of doing work.

W
P = (15)
t

The SI unit of power is watt (W). 1W = 1 Js . Another non SI unit of power is the
horsepower (HP).
1HP = 746W

We can also express instantaneous power in terms of the scalar product of force and
velocity as
P = F~ .~v .

Worked Examples

1. A 1000 kg elevator car carries a maximum load of 800 kg. As the elevator moves
upward a constant frictional fore of 4000 N retards its motion. What minimum
power must the motor deliver to lift the loaded elevator car at a constant speed of
2.5 m/s?

2. An advertisement claims that a certain 1200 kg car can accelerate from rest to a
speed of 25 m/s in a time of 8 s. What average power must the motor develop to
produce this acceleration?

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 3. Two forces F1 = 5N and F2 = 2N along the directions indicated are acting on a
box that slides horizontally to the right across a frictionless surface, as shown in
Figure below Force F1 makes an angle θ = 60◦ with the horizontal. Force F2 is
against the motion. The speed v of the box at a certain instant is 4 m/s. What is
the power due to each force that acts on the box at that instant, and what is the
net power? Is the net power changing with time?

4.6. Conservation of mechanical energy

The law of conservation of mechanical energy states that in the absence of dissipative
forces like air resistance and friction, the total mechanical energy of an object or system
of objects remains unchanged (constant).

M M E = 0,

⇒MM KE+ M P E = 0,

⇒ KEf − KEi + P Ef − P Ei = 0

⇒ KEi + P Ei = KEf + P Ef = 0

Worked Examples

1. A 10 kg block is released from rest at the top of a smooth inclined plane 10 m in

length, as shown in Figure below. Find the speed of the block as it reaches the
√
bottom of the inclined plane. (v = 2gh and h = l sin θ ⇒ v = 9.9m/s ≈ 10m/s)

20
2. Repeat the question in Example 1 if the inclined plane is rough and the coefficient
of kinetic friction between the block and the surface is 0.2. (Wd =M M E)

3. A 2 kg block sliding over a smooth horizontal surface with a constant speed of 8

m/s hits a horizontal spring whose one end is fixed as shown in Figure below. If
the maximum compression of the spring just before the block comes to rest is 20
cm, what is the spring constant of the spring?

4. A 5 kg block is set into motion up an inclined plane at an angle of 30◦ with initial
velocity of 10 m/s. How far up along the plane does the block go before coming
to rest assuming?

(a) no friction between the block and the surface of the inclined plane?

(b) the coefficient of friction between block and the surface is 0.25?

5. A 1 kg ball is released from the top of an 18 m high tower. Neglecting air resistance,
where above the ground will the ball have its kinetic energy twice its potential
energy at that location?

21
 6. A particle of mass m = 8 kg is released from point A and slides on the frictionless
track shown in Figure below. Determine

(a) the particle’s speed at points B and C and

(b) the net work done by the gravitational force in moving the particle from A
to C.

7. Suppose a car traveling at a speed v skids a distance d after its brakes lock.
Estimate how far it would skid if it were traveling at speed 2v when its brakes
locked.

4.6. Impulse and Linear Momentum

Linear momentum is the property of a moving object that describes how hard it is to
set a body in motion or to stop it. It is hard to stop a fast moving object than a slow
moving object. Similarly, it is hard to stop a larger mass than a smaller mass provided
that they move with the same speed.
The Linear momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity.
Linear momentum = mass × velocity.

P~ = m~v . (16)

Momentum is a vector quantity directed along the direction of the velocity and its SI
unit is kgm/s.

Worked Examples

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 1. What is the linear momentum of a 0.5 kg match box that is moving at a constant
speed of 6m/s toward the positive x-direction?

2. If the box in the above example is acted by an external force and its velocity is
increased from 6m/s to 15m/s along the same direction, what is the change in
momentum?

Changing the momentum of a body require application of a force. According to Newton’s

second law, velocity of a moving object changes when a non-zero net force acts on it.
Starting from the common version of Newton’s second law we define an equivalent
expression as follows.
F = m~a,
Mv vf − vi mvf − mvi
⇒F =m = m( )= ,
Mt Mt Mt
Pf − Pi MP
⇒F = = . (17)
Mt Mt
The net force (vector sum of all forces) acting on a particle equals the time rate of
change of momentum of the particle.
Rearranging the above equation we have

M P = F M t.

The product of the net force and the time interval, M t, is known as Impulse of the net
~
force, denoted by J.
M P = J~ = F M t.

The change in momentum of a particle during a time interval equals the impulse of
the net force that acts on the particle during that interval. This statement defines the
Impulse-Momentum theory. Impulse-Momentum theory is the direct result of Newton’s
second law of motion.

Worked Examples

1. A 2 kg ball that was moving along a smooth horizontal floor at 2.5 m/s toward
East hits a hard surface and rebounds with a speed of 2.3 m/s along the same line.
If the time of interaction between the ball and the wall is 0.20s,

(a) What is the change in momentum of the ball?

23
 (b) What is the impulse imparted to the ball?

(c) What is the net force exerted on the ball by the surface?

2. To improve the safety of a motorist, modern cars are built so the front end cramps
upon impact. A 1500 kg car is traveling at a constant speed of 10 m/s due East.
It hits a rigid wall and comes to rest in 0.25s.

(a) Determine the impulse provided to the car.

(b) What is the average net force exerted on the car?

(c) For the same impulse, what would be the average net force exerted on the
car if it had a rigid bumper and frame that stopped the car in 0.04 s?

3. The force that an average football player can exert on a ball is 1200N. Such a
football striker shoots a penalty from a penalty spot 11m from the goal line. The
average mass of a soccer ball is 400g. If the time of contact between the ball and
the foot is 0.02s, what is the velocity of the ball as it leaves the spot?

One way to calculate the impulse provided to an object is to graph the net force on the
object as a function of the interaction time. The area of the net force versus time graph
is equal to the magnitude of the impulse provided.
Example: The graph below shows the force which acts on a 7kg object over a time
interval of 8 seconds. Calculate:
a) Impulse on the object,
b) Change in momentum of the object
c) The final velocity of the object if it is initially at rest.

24
The Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum
One of the most important conservation laws in physics is the law of conservation of
linear momentum. It states:
“In a closed system the total linear momentum must remain constant. ”
This means that when objects collide the total linear momentum before the collision
must equal the total linear momentum after the collision if no external forces act on the
system. In symbolic terms this may be written as:

X X
pi = pf

P P
, where pi is the total linear momentum before the collision and pf is the total
linear momentum after the collision.
Take for example, two balls of mass m1 and m2 initially move with velocities u1 and u2 .
After the collide to each other, they will move with velocities v1 and v2 after collision.
If no external force acting on the balls, the total linear momentum will be conserved,
and the following equation will be satisfied.

X X
pi = pf

⇒ m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 .

Example: A car of mass 600 kg is moving at a speed of 20 m/s. It collides with a

stationary car of mass 900 kg. If the first car bounces back at 4 m/s, at what speed
does the second car move after the collision?
Given before collision: m1 = 600kg, m2 = 900kg u1 = 20m/s and u2 = 0(stationary)
Given after collision: m1 = 600kg, m2 = 900kg and v1 = −4m/s(bounced back)

Collisions in One Dimension

Collision: is any event in which two or more bodies exert forces on each other in a
relatively short time. Collisions are classified as Elastic and Inelastic depending on
whether or not kinetic energy of the system is conserved.
Elastic collision: is a type of collision where the total kinetic energy and momentum
are conserved. That means, for elastic collision the total kinetic energy and momentum
of a system before collision is equal to the total kinetic energy and momentum after

25
collision. Mathematically, for an elastic collision:

X X
pi = pf ,

and
X X
KEi = KEf .

⇒ m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 ,

and
1 1 1 1
⇒ m1 u21 + m1 u22 = m1 v12 + m1 v22 .
2 2 2 2

Consider two masses m1 and m2 moving along the same line in opposite direction as
shown in Figure below. If the masses make a head-on elastic collision, we can determine
the velocities of each of the masses after collision as follows.

Figure 14: Two masses making an elastic head-on collision

In an elastic collision both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved and we have

⇒ m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 ,

⇒ m1 (u1 − v1 ) = m2 (v2 − u2 ). (18)

And for the conservation of kinetic energy, we write

1 1 1 1
⇒ m1 u21 + m1 u22 = m1 v12 + m1 v22 ,
2 2 2 2
26
 ⇒ m1 u21 + m1 u22 = m1 v12 + m1 v22 ,

⇒ m1 (u21 − v12 ) = m2 (v22 − u22 ). (19)

Dividing equation (19) by equation (18) gives

⇒ u1 + v1 = u2 + v2 ,

⇒ u1 − u2 = v2 − v1 ,

u1 − u2 = −(v1 − v2 ). (20)

u1 − u2 is the relative velocity of the masses before collision and v1 − v2 the relative
velocity of the masses after collision.

Worked Examples

1. Consider two masses m1 of 4 kg and m2 of 6 kg moving along the same line in

opposite direction as shown in Figure 13 above, with velocities of 2 m/s and 1
m/s respectively, along the directions indicated. If the masses make an elastic
collision, what are the velocities of each of the masses after collision?

2. Two gliders A and B with masses of 0.5 kg and 0.3 kg, respectively, move toward
each other on a frictionless air track as shown below. After they collide, glider B
has a final velocity of 2 m/s toward the positive x-direction.

(a) What is the final velocity of glider A?

(b) How do the changes in momentum and in velocity compare?

Inelastic collision: is a type of collision where the total momentum is conserved,

but total kinetic energy of a system is not conserved. That means, for inelastic collision
the total momentum of a system before collision is equal to the total momentum after

27
collision, but the total kinetic energy of the system before collision is not equal to the
total kinetic energy of the system after collision.
When the colliding objects stick together after interaction, the collision is said to be
completely inelastic. Mathematically, for an inelastic collision:

X X
pi = pf ,

and
X X
KEi 6= KEf .

⇒ m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 ,

and
1 1 1 1
⇒ m1 u21 + m1 u22 6= m1 v12 + m1 v22 .
2 2 2 2

Examples

1. A stationary block of wood is suspended from the ceiling by light ropes. When a
bullet is fired at the block, the bullet becomes embedded in the wood upon impact.
Just after interaction the pendulum-bullet system starting from rest, rises up to
a certain height of swing before stopping. Derive an expression for the velocity of
the bullet in terms of mass of its own mass, mass of the block, acceleration due to
gravity and swing height.

2. A bullet of mass 10g, moving horizontally, strikes and embeddes itself in a box
of mass 1kg suspended from a light string as shown in the figure below. If the
composite mass rises to a height, H = 0.45m, then what is the speed of the bullet
before collision?

28
Center of Mass
Center of mass of an object or system of objects is a place where the total mass of the
system assumed to be concentrated. We shall see that the center of mass of the system
moves as if all the mass of the system were concentrated at that point. When a resultant
force acts on a system of objects or particles, the force is assumed to have acted at the
center of mass and the center of mass moves with an acceleration governed by Newton’s
second law of motion.
Suppose we have several particles with masses m1 , m2 ,... mn . Let the coordinates of
m1 be (x1 , y1 ), be those of m2 be (x2 , y2 ) and so on. We define the center of mass of the
system as the point that has coordinates (xcm , ycm ) given by

m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 + ... + mn xn
xcm = (21)
m1 + m2 + m3 + ... + mn

and
m1 y1 + m2 y2 + m3 y3 + ... + mn yn
ycm = (22)
m1 + m2 + m3 + ... + mn

Worked examples

1. Three masses on m1 = 300g, m2 = 500g and m3 = 200g are place on the xy plane
at coordinates (-2, 2), (2,3) and (3,-1), respectively. If distances are in centimeters,
find the coordinates of the center of mass of the system.

Motion of Center of the Mass

Knowing the x and y coordinates of the center of mass (or the x and y components of
its position vector) we can determine the time rate at which the position vector changes
to determine the velocity of the center of mass. The velocity coordinates of x and y
components of the center of mass are respectively, given by beginequation

m1 vx1 + m2 vx2 + m3 vx3 + ... + mn vxn

V xcm = (23)
m1 + m2 + m3 + ... + mn

and
m1 y1 + m2 y2 + m3 y3 + ... + mn yn
V ycm = (24)
m1 + m2 + m3 + ... + mn

When writing this equation to the single vector equation of the velocity of the center of

29
mass, we have
m1 v~1 + m2 v~2 + m3 v~3 + ... + mn v~n
V~cm = (25)
m1 + m2 + m3 + ... + mn
If the sum m1 + m2 + m3 + ...mn represents the total mass of the system M , we have

M V~cm = m1 v~1 + m2 v~2 + m3 v~3 + ... + mn v~n

⇒ P~cm = m1 v~1 + m2 v~2 + m3 v~3 + ... + mn v~n (26)

ˆ The linear momentum of a system of particles is equal to the product of the total
mass M of the system and the velocity of the center of mass.

30
 5. HEAT CONDUCTION AND
CALORIMETRY

5.1. The concept of heat

Although they are highly related, heat and temperature are completely different quan-
tities.

ˆ If two objects at different temperatures are brought in thermal contact, energy

flows spontaneously from the hotter object to the cooler one.

ˆ The spontaneous transfer of energy from hotter region to cooler region is called
heat. Since heat is energy, its SI unit is joules (J).

ˆ When temperatures of the tea and that of the surrounding air balance out, we
say thermal equilibrium is reached. At thermal equilibrium, the two regions may
exchange energy, but no net heat transfer occurs.

ˆ Temperature is a fundamental physical quantity which is a measure of the average

kinetic energy of particles of the substance.

Heat, internal energy and thermodynamic work

Internal energy: is equal to the sum of internal kinetic energy due to molecular motion
(translational, rotational, and energy of vibration) and internal potential energy due to
molecular attractive forces.
Heat is energy: which is in transit from one body to another as the result of a difference
in temperature.
Thermodynamic work: is the quantity of energy transferred from one system to
another.

ˆ When an object is heated, its temperature rises, since the average kinetic energy
of its particles increases.

31
 ˆ In other words, the energy stored in the substance is increased. This energy stored
in the object is what we call internal energy.

ˆ Heat and work are two different ways of transferring energy from one system to
another.

ˆ Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between systems, while work is the transfer
of mechanical energy between two systems.

5.2. Heat transfer mechanisms

Heat transfer mechanisms are the ways by which thermal energy can be transferred
between objects, and they all rely on the basic principle that kinetic energy or heat
wants to be at equilibrium. Heat transfer occurs in three different ways. These are:

1. conduction,

2. convection and

3. radiation.

1. Conduction: is the process by which heat energy is transmitted through collisions

between neighboring atoms or molecules.

2. Convection: is the transfer of heat from one place to another due to the move-
ment of fluid.

3. Radiation heat transfer occurs via electromagnetic waves. Unlike conduction and
convection, radiation does not need a medium for transmission

5.3. Heat capacity and specific heat capacity

Heat capacity
Heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat required to change the temperature of a
given amount of matter by 1◦ C or by 1K. The mathematical form of this definition is
given by
Q
C= (27)
MT
, where Q is heat transferred to the object, M T is change in temperature of the object
and C is heat capacity of the object.
The SI unit of C is joule per kelvin (J/K).

32
Specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat absorbed or released by 1kg of
an object to change its temperature by 1K. The specific heat capacity, c, of a substance
of mass, m, and heat capacity, C, can be defined as

Q
C
c= = MT ,
m m

Q
⇒c= . (28)
mMT
The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J/kg◦ C, or J/kg.K.
Specific heat is a property that is specific to a given type of matter, and substances vary
in their specific heat. Metals tend to have low specific heat. On the other hand, water
has very high specific heat compared to most other substances. That is why; water is
commonly used as a coolant for machinery because it is able to absorb large quantities
of heat.

Worked Examples

1. Calculate the heat energy transferred if the temperature of 600 g of lead is raised
from 20◦ C to 100◦ C (cP b = 128J/kg.K)

2. The initial temperature of an object is 10◦ C. It attains a heat capacity of 2580

J/K when its temperature is increased to 50◦ C.

(a) How much heat is supplied to the object?

(b) What would be the final temperature if the object were made of pure copper?
(cCu = 385J/kg.K)

3. How many joules of energy are required to raise the temperature of 100g of gold
from 20◦ C to 100◦ C? (Specific heat of gold is 129 J/kg.°C)

4. A 0.80 kg aluminum pan on a stove is used to heat 0.20 L of water from 25◦ C to
85◦ C (Hint: Mass of 1 L of water = 1 kg of water, around 4 °C)

(a) How much heat is required?

(b) What percentage of the heat is used to raise the temperature of the pan?

33
 5. Calculate the temperature increase of 50 kg of steel falling from a height of 50m
if 50% of its kinetic energy is converted into heat and assume no heat flow to the
surrounding ?

5.4. Thermal expansion

Thermal expansion is the change in size of matter in response to a change in its tempera-
ture. When a substance is heated, the average kinetic energy of its constituting particles
is increased. Thermal expansion is also affected by the properties of the substance. For
example, solids expand very less as compared to liquids and gases.
Thermal expansion can be classified in to three: linear expansion, surface (area) expan-
sion and volume expansion.

Linear expansion
When a metal rod is heated it expands and increases in length. This expansion in length
is referred to as linear expansion.
Consider a metal rod, of length l0 before heating at temperature T0 . If rod’s temperature
has increased by M T and reaches T , its length increases from l0 to l. Then, the increase
in length, M l, is the difference between the length before heating, l0 , and the length
after heating, l.

M l = l − l0

So, for an increase in temperature of M T , the fractional increase in length is equal to

Ml
l0
.
Ml
F Il =
l0
, where F Il - is the fractional increase in length.

34
The ratio of the fractional increase in length to the increase or change the temperature
of the rod is called coefficient of linear expansion. The coefficient of linear expansion
for the solid is given by:
F Il
α= ,
MT
Ml
l0 Ml
⇒α= ⇒αMT = ,
MT l0

M l = αl0 M T. (29)

Each substance has a unique linear expansion coefficient; i.e., different substances expand
in different amounts for the same temperature change.

Worked Examples

1. A steel bridge is built in several segments, each 20 m long. The bridge was con-
structed when the temperature was 20 C. If a gap of 4 cm is left between neigh-
boring segments what would be the maximum temperature that the bridge can
manage before buckling? (α = 1.1 × 10−5 K −1 )

◦
2. Calculate the increase in length of a 50 cm brass rod that is heated from 25 C
◦
to 70 C. (α = 1.9 × 10−5 K −1 )

◦
3. Calculate the length of an iron rail at 400 C, when it is exactly 100 m long at
◦
200 C. (α = 1.1 × 10−5 K −1 )

4. A segment of steel railroad track has a length of 60m when the temperature is 0◦
C. What is its length when the temperature is raised to 40◦ C?

Area expansion
Surface (area) expansion of solids is the expansion of solids in two dimensions. As a
heat is added to a surface, it can be expanded both vertically and horizontally. This
type of thermal expansion is called surface or areal expansion.
Consider a square metallic plate of sides l0 and area A0 at temperature T0 . As the
temperature of the metallic plate increases by M T , the area of the plate will increase
by M A. If the temperature of the plate increased from T0 to T , its surface area will be
increased from A0 to A.

35
 M A = A − A0

MA
For an increase in temperature of M T , the fractional increase in area is equal to A0
.

MA
F IA = .
A0

,where F IA - is the fractional increase in area.

The ratio of the fractional increase in area to the increase or change the temperature of
the plate is called coefficient of areal expansion. The coefficient of areal expansion
for the solid, β, is given by:
F IA
β= ,
MT
MA
A0 MA
⇒β= ⇒βMT = ,
MT A0

M A = βA0 M T. (30)

Comparing this with the original definition, we find that β = 2α.

Worked Examples

1. The surface area of one side of a circular brass plate at temperature 100◦ C, is
3850 cm2 . To put this plate inside a cylinder, you need to cool it to 0| circ C.
What is the base area of the cylinder? (αbrass = 1.9 × 10−5 K −1 )

Volume Expansion
When the length, the width and the thickness of the object are equally significant, we
need to consider the expansion of the object in three dimensions.

36
Volume expansion is the expansion of a solid in three dimensions, where the length,
width and height of the substance all increase on heating.
Consider a square metallic plate of sides l0 and area A0 at temperature T0 . As the
temperature of the metallic plate increases by M T , the area of the plate will increase
by M A. If the temperature of the plate increased from T0 to T , its surface area will be
increased from A0 to A.

M V = V − V0

MV
For an increase in temperature of M T , the fractional increase in volume is equal to V0
.

MV
F IV = .
V0

,where F IV - is the fractional increase in Volume.

The ratio of the fractional increase in volume to the increase or change the temperature
of the plate is called coefficient of volume expansion. The coefficient of volume
expansion for the solid, γ, is given by:

F IV
γ= ,
MT

MV
V0 MV
⇒γ= ⇒γMT = ,
MT V0

M V = γV0 M T.

, where γ = 3α = 32 β

37
 Worked Examples

1. Show that the relationship between coefficient of areal expansion and coefficient
of linear expansion for a solid is given by β = 2α.

2. Calculate the increase in surface area of an iron drain cover with a surface area
◦ ◦
of 0.75 m 2 at 20 C, when it is heated to a temperature of 53 C (α = 1.1 ×
10−5 K −1 ).

3. If the coefficient of linear expansion of a solid is 5 × 10−4 , what is coefficient of

surface expansion of the solid will be?

4. Show that the relationship between coefficient of volume expansion and coefficient
of linear expansion for a solid is given by γ = 3α.

5.5. Change of phase

The term phase is used to describe a specific state of matter, such as a liquid, solid or
gas. Phases of matter are inter-changeable. When a substance is supplied with heat, it
either changes its temperature or changes its internal energy. When internal energy is
changed as heat is supplied the substance undergoes phase change. The transition from
one phase to another is called phase change or phase transition, for instance, solid to
liquid (melting), liquid to gas (evaporation).

Latent heat
The energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical state
(phase) that occurs without changing its temperature is called latent heat. The amount
of heat absorbed or released by an object of mass, m, is given mathematically by

Q = mL (31)

,where L is called the latent heat of the substance; i.e., L = Lf for heat of fusion and
L = Lv for heat of vaporization. Its SI unit is joule per kilogram (J/kg).

ˆ Latent heat depends on the nature of the phase change as well as on the properties
of the substance.

ˆ Latent heat of fusion: is the amount of heat absorbed by 1 kg of a substance

to change its state from solid to liquid without any change in temperature.

38
 ˆ The temperature at which fusion takes place is called the melting point of the
substance.

ˆ Latent heat of vaporization: is the amount of heat absorbed by 1kg of the

substance to change its phase from liquid to gas.

ˆ The temperature at which a liquid substance changes to steam is called boiling

point.

ˆ The word “latent” means “hidden.” The reason why it is called latent heat is that
it cannot be measured by a thermometer.

ˆ The energy involved in a phase change is used to break bonds, and hence there is no
increase in the kinetic energies of the particles (therefore, no rise in temperature).

Phase diagram
Phase diagram is a graphical representation of the physical states of a substance under
different conditions of temperature and pressure. The commonly known phase diagram
has pressure on the y-axis and temperature on the x-axis.

39
At several points on the graph, the temperature and pressure combinations will create a
state of phase equilibrium between two phases. This is illustrated by a line along those
temperature-pressure combinations called, “phase equilibrium lines.” At every point
along that line, there is equilibrium of both phases.

ˆ The triple point: is the triple point is a point at which the three lines on the
pressure- temperature graph converge, offering an equilibrium state where all the
three phases of solid, liquid and gas exist simultaneously. For example, the single
combination of pressure and temperature at which liquid water, solid ice, and
water vapor can coexist in a stable equilibrium occurs at exactly 273.1600 K and
a partial vapor pressure of 611.657 Pa.

ˆ Sublimation: is the term for a phase change that proceeds directly from the solid
phase to the vapor phase without first making the transition to the liquid state.

ˆ Critical Point: is the point in temperature and pressure on a phase diagram

where the liquid and gaseous phases of a substance merge together into a single
phase. Above this point clear phase boundaries cease to exist. For water the
critical point is around 647 K and 22 MPa.

Worked Examples

1. Calculate the heat energy required to melt 10 g of copper at its melting point. (Lf
for copper = 209000J/kg).

40
 2. The diagram shows the phase diagram of CO2 .

(a) At what temperature and pressure can the solid, liquid and vapor phases of
CO2 coexist in equilibrium?

(b) At what temperature does carbon dioxide undergoes change in state at stan-
dard pressure? What type of state change does it undergo?

(c) What are the critical temperature and pressure for CO2?

5.6. Calorimetry
Calorimetry is the measurement of the quantity of heat exchanged between substances.
The experimental approach of measuring heat capacities and the heat changes during
chemical and physical processes is called calorimetry. A calorimeter is a device used to
measure specific heat capacity and specific latent heat of solids or liquids.
For an isolated system, the heat energy lost (Qlost ) from the hot body will equal the
heat gained (Qgained ) by the cold body. Hence,

Qlost = Qgained . (32)

Examples

1. A 0.05 kg bar of unknown metal is heated to 200◦ C and then immersed into a con-
tainer with 0.40 kg of water initially at 20◦ C. If the final equilibrium temperature
of the system is 22.4◦ C, find the specific heat of the metal.

41
Electrical heating to determine the specific heat capacity of a
solid
The electrical method can be used to find the specific heat capacity of a solid or a liquid.
The apparatus used to find the specific heat capacity of a solid by electric method is
electrical heater.
If we know the power rating of the heater and we know how long the heater is switched
on for, we can determine the quantity of heat energy supplied to the block as:

E = Pt (33)

where E is the energy supplied in the time t, and P is the power rating of the heater.
For a given mass, m, and change in temperature, MT , the specific heat capacity, c , can
be determined from the principle of calorimetry as

E = Qs ⇒ P t = ms cs M T

Example

1. A 100 W electrical heater, running for 5 minutes, warmed a 0.50 kg block of an

unknown metal. The initial temperature of the metal block was 20◦ C and its final
temperature was 86.6◦ C. Determine the type of the metal.

Electrical heating to determine the specific heat capacity of a

liquid
Electrical heating can also be used to determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid.
An insulated container could be used for the liquid. Alternatively, a calorimeter could
be used to hold the liquid.
In this case, the liquid is continuously stirred and we will take into account the heat
energy supplied to the calorimeter as well as that supplied to the liquid.
Applying the heat exchange method for a given mass of liquid, ml , specific heat ca-
pacity, cl , using a calorimeter of mass, mc , specific heat capacity, cc , and change in
temperature, M T , gives
P t = ml cl M T + mc cc M T

42
 Figure 15: Determining the specific heat capacity of a liquid

⇒ P t = (ml cl + mc cc ) M T,
Pt
⇒ = ml cl + mc cc ,
MT
Pt
⇒ ml cl = − mc cc ,
MT

Pt mc cc
cl = − . (34)
ml M T ml

Examples

1. A copper calorimeter and stirrer of mass 350 g contains 227 g of a liquid. A 1000
W heater running for 1 minute and 15 seconds heated this combination of liquid
and calorimeter from 20◦ C to 88◦ C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of this
liquid given that the specific heat capacity of copper is 420 J/kg.K.

2. A calorimeter of mass 250 g contains 200 g of water. A 1000 W heater running for
5 minutes, heated this combination of liquid and calorimeter from 20◦ C to 80◦ C.
Calculate the specific heat capacity of this calorimeter

43
Mixture method
This method can be adapted to measure the specific heat capacity of a solid or liquid.

Figure 16: Determining the specific heat capacity of a solid using the method of mixtures

The diagram in Figure 15 shows the method used to determine the specific heat capac-
ity of a solid. The solid, of known mass, ms , is heated in a water bath to a temperature
of T0 . This temperature will be the initial temperature of the solid. The solid is then
quickly transferred to the cold water of known mass, mw , in the calorimeter.
In this case, we stir the water and record the highest temperature on the thermometer,
which will be the final temperature, Tf , of the mixture. The heat lost by the hot solid
object will be equal to the heat gained by the water and the calorimeter.

− Qs = Qw + Qc (35)

,where

ˆ The heat lost by the solid: −Qs = −ms cs (Tf − T0 ) = ms cs (T0 − Tf ).

ˆ The heat gained by the cold water: Qw = mw cw (Tf − Tc )

ˆ The heat gained by the calorimeter: Qw = mc cc (Tf − Tc )

ms cs (T0 − Tf ) = mw cw (Tf − Tc ) + mc cc (Tf − Tc ) (36)

44
 Examples

1. Suppose the temperature and mass of the bolt is 100◦ C and 125g, respectively.
Mass of water is 200g, and mass of copper calorimeter, copper stirrer is 100 g, and
initial temperature of water and calorimeter is 20◦ C. If the equilibrium temperature
is 25◦ C, what is the specific heat capacity of the bolt?

2. In an experiment to determine the specific heat of a metal, a 0.25 kg block of

the metal at 200◦ C is dropped in a copper calorimeter of mass 0.02 kg containing
150cm3 of water at 25◦ C. The final temperature is 40◦ C. What is the specific heat
of the metal? If heat losses to the surroundings are not negligible, is your answer
greater or smaller than the actual value for specific heat of the metal?

Measuring specific latent heat

Measuring specific latent heat of ice or that of steam can be done by the two methods.

1. Electrical method: Energy is supplied for a known time by an electrical heater

of known power.

2. Method of mixture: Mixing water and ice in a calorimeter.

45
 6. ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC
CIRCUIT

6.1. Charges and Properties of Electric Charges

Charge is the fundamental property of matter associated with electrons and protons
which are found in any atom. There are only two types of charges: negative and positive
charges. By convention, negative charges are carried by electrons and positive charges
are carried by protons.

ˆ When the number of electrons and protons in an object are equal that
object is said to be electrically neutral.

Electric charges have the following main Properties:

1. There are two kinds of electric charges: Positive and Negative.

2. Two similarly charged bodies repel each other and two oppositely charged bodies
attract each other.

3. Electric charge is always conserved, i.e., it cannot be created or destroyed. In any

charging process, the number of electrons gained by one object is equal to the
number of electrons lost by the other.

4. Electric charge is quantized. Charge comes in discrete packets, it means that

charge (q) always occurs as some integral multiple of the charge of an electron, e.
It can be written as: q = ±ne, where n = 1, 2, 3, ...

The smallest unit of charge that is carried by one electron or proton is called the ele-
mentary charge.

Exercise: 1. What number of protons needed to make a charge of +1C?

2. How many electrons must be removed from a neutral object to leave a net
charge of +0.5µ C?

46
6.2. Coulomb’s Law

Electrostatic Force
A force of attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies, is known as the electro-
static force. Electrostatic force is either attractive or repulsive, unlike the gravitational
force which is only attractive. If the objects have opposite charges they attract each
other, while if their charges are similar, they repel each other.
In 1785, the French physicist Charles Coulomb, proposed a law that describes the force
that one charged particle exerts on another. Coulomb’s law states that:
“Any two-point charges exert an electrical force on each other that is directly
proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.”
Then, the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two point-charges is given by:

q1 q 2
F =k (37)
r2

1
The proportionality constant k = 4πε0
is called the electrostatic, or Coulomb constant.
ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 /N m2 and k = 9 × 109 N m2 /C 2

Examples

1. Two tiny spherical water drops with identical charges of −1.0 × 10−10 C, have a
center-to-center separation of 1.0cm.

(a) What is the electrostatic force acting between them?

(b) How many excess electrons are on each drop giving it its charge imbalance?

2. Three point charges are placed on the x-axis: q1 = +6µC at x1 = 5.0cm , q2 =

−5µC at x2 = −3.0cm , and q3 = +2µC at the origin ( x = 0 ). What is the
magnitude and direction of the total electrostatic force acting on q3 ?

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3. In the figure below, X is a small negatively charged sphere with a mass of 10 kg. It
is suspended from the roof by an insulating rope which makes an angle of 60◦ with
the roof. Y is a small positively charged sphere which has the same magnitude of
charge as X. Y is fixed to the wall by means of an insulating bracket. Assuming
the system is in equilibrium, what is the magnitude of the charge on X?

4. Two charges of 5µC and 2µC are placed horizontally and separated apart by a
distance of 3m. If a charge of 1µC is placed between them, where would you put
a positive charge of 1µC so that the net electrostatic force on it is zero?

5. The force of electrostatic interaction between two equal charges separated by a

distance of 3cm is 3.6N. Find the magnitude of the charges.

6. Three point charges are arranged as shown in figure below. Find the magnitude
of the force on the 5nC charge.

7. Two positive charges Q1 and Q2 are separated by a distance r. The charges repel
each other with a force F. If the magnitude of each charge is doubled and the
distance stays unchanged, what is the new force between the charges?

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 8. Two-point charges Q1 and Q2 = 2Q1 are repelled each other with a force of 0.8N.
The algebraic sum of the two charges is 6µC. What is the separation distance
between the two charges?

9. Two point charges separated by a distance of 0.9m exert a force of magnitude 0.05N
on each other. If the sum of the two charges is 4.5µC, what is the magnitude of
each charge?

6.3. Electric Fields

An electric field is a region in space where one charge experiences a force from another
charge. The electric field produced by a charged particle can be represented by lines of
force called electric field lines.

Properties of electric Field lines

Electric field lines have the following properties:

ˆ Electric field lines do not cross each other.

ˆ Electric field lines begin on positive charges and radiate away from them toward
negative charges, where they terminate.

ˆ Electric field lines are always perpendicular to the surface of the charged body.

ˆ The closer the lines, the stronger the electric field, and the farther apart they are
the weaker is the field.

ˆ Equally spaced electric field lines indicate the field is uniform.

The Electric field strength

The magnitude and direction of the electric field is expressed by a quantity called electric
field strength or electric field intensity. Electric field strength, is the force acting per
unit positive charge for a stationary point charge.

~
~ =F
E (38)
q

~ is electric field strength, F~ is electric force and q is electric charge.

,where E

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The electric field of a point charge, q0 , can be obtained from Coulomb’s law.

qq0
⇒F =k
r2

F k qqr20 q0
⇒E= = =k 2 (39)
q q r
The SI unit for the electric field strength is newton per coulomb (N/C). The direction
of the electric field will be in the direction of the force the source charge exerted on a
positive test charge. Thus, electric field lines will direct away from a positive source
charge and towards a negative source charge.

Electric field for multiple point charges

The electric field from multiple point charges can be obtained by taking the vector sum
of the electric fields of the individual charges.

Enet = E1 + E2 + E3 + ......En (40)

Examples

1. Calculate the strength and direction of the electric field due to a point charge of
2.0 nC (nano-Coulombs) at a distance of 5.0 mm from the charge.

2. Two-point charges q1 = 5nC and q2 = −4nC are separated by a distance of 10cm.

What is the magnitude of the electric field in between the charges?

Electric flux
Electric flux is a measure of the number of electric field lines, N , that crosses a given
area, A. The product of the electric field, E and the surface area, A, perpendicular to
the field is called the electric flux and represented by the symbol φ.

φ = E.A (41)

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If the surface under consideration is not perpendicular to the field, as shown in the figure
below,

the electric flux is given by

φ = EA cos θ (42)

The area vector of a flat surface of area A has the following magnitude and direction:

ˆ Magnitude is equal to area of the surface (A)

ˆ Direction along normal or perpendicular to the surface.

Examples

1. A 2cm × 2cm square lies in the xy-plane. Find the electric flux through the square
~ = (20ĵ + 50k̂)N/C.
for the electric field vectors, E

2. Find the electric flux through the surface with sides of 15cm × 15cm positioned
in a uniform electric field of E = 150N/C as shown in the figure below.

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6.4. Electric Potential
Electric potential is another concept which helps us to visualize the behavior of electric
fields. Electric potential (denoted by V) is equal to the work done per positive charge in
carrying it from infinity to that point in an electric field. The work to be done is equal
to the change in the potential energy of the test charge in the field of the source charge.

W MU
V = = (43)
q q

The potential due to a single point charge

The electric potential at a distance r from a source charge q is given by:

q
V =k (44)
r

Electric potential is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is Volt (V).

Electrical Potential Difference

The potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the work
required to move a unit positive test charge from the point of lower potential to that of
higher potential.
If an amount of work W is required to move a charge q from one point to another, then
the potential difference between the two points is given by,

W
MV = (45)
q

Examples

1. Determine the electric potential produced by a charge of 1µC at a distance of

1mm from it.

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Potential difference in a uniform electric field
A uniform electric field is produced between two equally and oppositely charged parallel
plates.

To measure the potential difference between two points in the field, we equate the work
done in moving a charge from one point to the other with the gain in electrical potential
energy.
W =M U,

⇒ F d = q M V,

⇒ Eqd = q M V,

⇒M V = Ed (46)

Thus, the electrical potential difference between the two plates is expressed as, the
electric field strength times the distance between the plates.

Potential due to a system of point charges

Consider a system of charges q1 , q2 , ..., qn with position vectors r1 , r2 , ..., rn relative
to some origin

Figure 17: Potential of multiple charges

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By the superposition principle, the potential V at P due to the total charge configuration
is the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the individual charges.

⇒ V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ... + Vn ,

q1 q2 q3 qn
⇒V =k + k + k + ... + k ,
r1 r2 r3 rn
 
q1 q2 q3 qn
⇒ VP = k + + + ... + , (47)
r1 r2 r3 rn

n
X qi
⇒ VP = k (48)
i
ri

Note that the sum in this equation is an algebraic sum. It is not a vector sum. It means
the signs of the charges are used in calculating the potential. As a result, the potential
of a positive charge is positive and the potential of a negative charge is negative.

Examples

1. Two charged particles are placed on the x-axis of a coordinate system. The first (
q1 = 2µC ) is at the origin. The second ( q2 = −5µC ) is at x = 1.0m .

(a) Determine the potential at x = 0.2m .

(b) At what point in between these two charges the electric potential is zero?

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