November 2008

Technologic
A Revolutionary, Yet
Under-appreciated, Invention:
The Refrigerator
What people had to do before
the fridge

Pro VS Con: Is it a good or bad

machine?

Numbers don’t lie, it’s had a

big impact on us

How Mankind’s most-used

appliance
works
Technologic

2 Technologic
 The Refrigerator

November 2008 3
Technologic

Staff

Chelsea Echiverri Karina Garavito Jason Li Madeline Montalov

Author Author Author Author
Ad Designer Editor Editor in Chief Photographer
Photographer Photographer
Ad Designer Ad Designer
Layout-Editor Layout-Editor

Editor’s Note
For this month’s issue of Technologic, we decided to change things up a bit and delve into one of man-
kind’s best inventions. To those of you who have yet to figure out just which invention we believe
deserves recognition and appreciation, it’s the refrigerator. But of course we can’t just give you the
fluffy, happy-go-lucky details; with the good comes bad, or at least that’s how we at Technologic be-
lieve it should be. So sit tight, buckle your seatbelts, and prepare to be launched off into the best darn
homage to the refrigerator! –Karina Garavito

4 Technologic
 The Refrigerator

November 2008 5
Technologic

6 Technologic
 The Refrigerator

Features
Throughout the Ages
Preserving food was no joke before the refrigerator was invented.
Back then, your life depended on it.
Page 8

Non-Lethal Sustenance, Our

Ozone is Toxin-fed 24/7
It practically saves lives, but may very well lead us to our demise.
When it comes down to it, what side are you on?
Page 10

Impact in Statistics
The numbers don’t lie, this invention has had quite the impact on us.
See just how much it really has through the power of statistics.
Page 14

Breaking it Down
We take the refrigerator apart for you and show you just how this
magnificent machine really works.
Page 16

November 2008 7
Technologic
Historical Impact
Throughout the Ages
The Refrigerator: Your Food’s Savior
B acteria. Mold. Decay. Fungi. Disease.
Nearly three-thousand years have
passed1 since the first recorded time man-
kind attempted to rid their food of these en-
tities utilizing low temperatures. However,
it is believed that humans were storing food
in cold areas as early as the Paleolithic
era, which was fifteen-thousand to forty-
thousand years ago9. Think stomach aches
are bad? Imagine being unsure if your
daily meal was safe to consume. Some
foods, especially meats, contained bacte-
ria, such as salmonella9, that are harmful
and could cause serious illnesses or even
death. Would you eat? Or would you rath-
er starve? Fortunately, for you, you don’t
have to decide. Over the centuries, efforts
to halt or slow the spoilage and contami-
nation of food have evolved to become an
object that is part of our everyday lives: the
modern refrigerator.
Prior to the refrigerator, people used dif-
ferent methods to preserve the food. Some
of the techniques included: salting, spicing,
smoking, pickling, and drying10. Most, if
not all of these methods, can be used today
for the sole purpose of bringing about a dif-
ferent and desired flavor. Such as in the case
with smoked meat and fish. When smoked,
the meat gains a wider range of tastes from
the different types of wood it is cooked on3.
However, the procedures only preserve the
food; they do not keep it fresh. Preserving
a food and while keeping it fresh were rare
The Chinese
stored and cut
ice
1000 B.C. 1700
8 Technologic
By: Karina Garavito
commodities before the refrigerator. When
a food is fresh it retains all its nutrients and
vitamins. Sadly, most of the preservation
methods would alter the structure of the The refrigerator keeps your food preserved and fresh for a longer
food so that it would diminish or lose these amount of time in comparison to other methods.
nutritive essences6. So the methods, as ef-
fective as they seemed to people, paled in
comparison to the power of the refrigerator.
Thanks to the new invention, food could
be stored for much longer periods of time
without losing its original flavor or valu-
able nutrients.
Advancements in low-temperature stud-
ies have been driven mainly by the desire
to keep food cold8. This was due to people
knowing that, for unknown reasons, keep-
ing foodstuffs in colder areas would keep it
fresh and preserved for a longer time. The
intent of preservation is to prevent “the Salmonella bacteria are the most frequently reported cause of
growth of bacteria, fungi, and other micro- foodborne illness. In fact, if present in food, it does not usually
affect the taste, smell, or appearance of the food.
organisms” and to hinder “the oxidation of
fats which cause rancidity”3. The idea is,
to keep food in colder environments than
normal, in order to slow down the growth
and oxidation efficiently since bacteria will
freeze and there is also less oxygen avail-
able in colder temperatures.
Back in the 1800s, the popularity of the
refrigerator made slow progress when it
was first made available to the public. This
was due to the kinks that earlier models
contained, especially when it came to the
refrigerants used to make the refrigerator A procedure like smoking fish only keeps the food preserved; this
does not keep it fresh.
cool. The most effective refrigerants used,
Dr. William Cul-
len studies the
evaporation
of liquids in a
vacuum
1720 1855
In England, ser-
Dr. John Gorrie
vants collect ice
builds compres-
in the winter and
sion refrigera-
put it in icehouses
tion system

at the time, were: ammonia: methyl chlo-
ride, and sulfur dioxide. Unfortunately,
these toxic gases would sometimes leak
from faulty tubing causing the deaths of
multiple people. Refrigerator manufactur-
ing companies like General Electric (GE)
and Frigidaire ended up having to collabo-
rate4 to find a new, and safer, alternative
that was just as, if not more, effective as
the noxious gases.
Freon, a chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs),
was discovered and soon replaced its lethal
brethren, providing consumers with an ef-
ficient, and completely harmless, way to
preserve their food. However, even though
it was safer for people, it had a harmful
impact on the environment. In the 1970s,
scientists discovered that “CFCs endan-
gered the ozone layer of the entire planet”2.
The Clean Air Act of 1990 was passed by
Legislation and forced industries to stop
using CFCs in products. However, there is
no “perfect” refrigerant; all are harmful ei-
ther to your health or the environment. So
although CFCs were replaced by less de-
structive HCFCs and HCFs, they are still
believed to cause damage in some way or
another.
The manufacturing of refrigerators
boomed rather rapidly right after World
War II had ended4. In 1921, five-thousand
had been made in the US; and in 1931 over
one-million4. By 1937, the number was
at six-million4. Today, refrigerators are
“found in more than 99.5% of American
homes”5.
Since fresh food was no longer difficult
to obtain, the expectations of the quality of
Carl von Linde
builds the first
practical and
portable com-
pressor refrigera-
tion machine
1873 1895
November 2008
The History of your
The Food
Refrigerator
Keeper
food was raised. A housewife would no
longer have to preserve foods the old-fash-
ioned way4, giving her time to complete
other tasks she wished or was expected to
do. GE even produced a play where kitchen
appliances, including the fridge, symbol-
ized freedom for the American housewife4.
The meatpacking and railroad indus-
tries benefitted significantly from refrigera-
tion technology in the 19th century6, they
actually owe their success to refrigeration.
Food, especially meat, shipped in railroad CFCs, as harmless as they may be to humans, endanger the ozone.
cars depended on refrigeration to stay
fresh7. This allowed meat transportation to
be faster and made food more accessible to
consumers from all parts of the country.
Though the refrigerator is now prac-
tically America’s most used appliance, it
has taken an enormous amount of time and
effort to develop the refrigerator into what
it is today. It has come from a snow-filled
hole in the ground to a modern appliance
with a built-in ice dispenser. This invention
has truly revolutionized the way people
live and many would be in deep trouble
without it. Even if the same techniques for
preservation are used, the most commonly
used method is now as simple as putting
leftovers in Tupperware and placing it in
the fridge. How much easier could it get?
Meatpacking and railroad industries would not have succeeded
without development in refrigeration technology.
GE introduces a
refrigerator with
once section for
frozen food and a
second for chilled
food
1915 Today
Today, 99.5% of
Linde is able to pro- American households
duce large amounts contain a modern
of liquid air using refrigerator
the Thomson-Joule
effect
9
Technologic
Persuative
Non-Lethal Sustenance
The food from of your refrigerator won’t kill you
Zhan Ruimin, the CEO of Haier Kitchen
Appliances, was ranked twenty sixth of
the world’s most respectful business lead-
ers. He expresses how the refrigerator had
changed lives.
How would life be like without the re-
frigerator? Tolerable, perhaps. But now
imagine the demolition of all restaurants.
No longer would you be able to experience
dining out with your family. Neither would
you have that summer job at the local fast
food joint. Maybe you might survive with
canned products and bags of chips, but life
as you know it would be turned upside
down.
Actually, who knows if you would even
you have your life today, if it was not for the
refrigerator? The refrigerator is responsible
for keeping food fresh and for preventing
bacteria from cultivating on your dinner
plate. Can you imagine a grocery store
without refrigeration? Picture rotten veg-
etables, maggot infested meats, and melted
ice-cream splattered on the tile floors. The
entire image is rather unappetizing, but
the fact is that food should not be wasted.
Someone has to eat it. The choice is yours:
disease or starvation?
Believe it or not, several people unwit-
tingly chose disease by eating spoiled food
for dinner. It was common, back in the
day, for people to die of salmonella, e. coli
infection, and other types of food poison-
ing. Most fungal diseases cultivate in hot
weather as a result of high humidity. But
now that the refrigerator has given us the
power to control our foods’ environmental
temperature, millions of lives have been
saved, without them even knowing.
Haier is the number one seller of compact
refrigerators in the world, one of the most
revolutionary tools of refrigeration. With
the compact refrigerator, you are able to
store food in your dorms without it catch-
10
By: Chelsea Echiverri
ing the odor of your roommate’s smelly
socks; you’re able to receive frozen pies
from your grandmother; and you’re able
to send food to troops fighting on another
continent. The power of the compact re-
frigerator is so extensive that it’s often un-
derestimated.
Like I mentioned before, without refrig-
eration, fast food places would never even
exist and neither would your summer job.
In fact, more than 230,000 people would be
out of work, and that is with the involve-
ment of the Haier factory alone. If every
job location linked to refrigeration was
counted, from smoothie joints to forensic
laboratories, unemployment would soar
into the millions. I am not saying that the
lack of refrigeration would stop anyone
from becoming a biochemical engineer or
an agricultural scientist, but it would defi- Zhang Ruimin, CEO of Haier Appliances.
nitely make their work much more diffi-
cult. Though, how many people would be
willing to take the job?
What many fail to realize is that refrig-
eration has not only saved lives, but a lot
of time as well. Before the invention of re-
frigeration, preserving food required heavy
maintenance. You would have to salt the
food, wrap it in plastic, and pack it tightly
between large blocks of ice, which were
often difficult to harvest. Sometimes this
method of preservation failed to even work.
Whenever it did happen to be effective, Haier is the #1 seller of compact refrigerators.
food tasted excessively salty. What a pain.
After wasting all of your time preserving
leftover food, you were left with exceed-
ingly salty meals that were only slightly
more edible than if they were rotten.
Without refrigeration, not only would
quality and freshness of food disappear, but
so would restaurants and grocery stores,
and possibly the human race itself.
Technologic

Our Ozone is Toxin-fed 24/7
...but its refrigerant might bring about our extinction
My name is Alexander Von Bismark and
I am a leading member of the Environmen-
tal Investigation Agency, a pressure group
in Washington D.C. There are several fac-
tors that contribute to the destruction of the
planet's well-being, but as of recently, our
main focus has been upon the appliances of
refrigeration. Only being able to physically
see how the refrigerator keeps food fresh,
you may be oblivious to how hazardous it
really is. That is why I am here, to inform
you about the toxic chemicals that refrig-
erators contain.
Ever since refrigeration had come into
existence, harmful chemicals have been
flowing through the refrigerator's coils.
First, we began the use of ammonia. Am-
monia was successful in artificial cooling
methods and therefore, in preserving tons
of food. However, this was not even close
to justifying the potential hazard of the
chemical. Pro-longed exposure to ammo-
nia was capable of causing damage to the
eyes, liver, kidneys, and lungs. The toxic
fumes were known for causing headaches,
loss of smell, shortness of breath, and high
blood pressure.
Being that ammonia was potentially
deadly, it was outlawed by health agencies
and refrigeration companies needed to find
a new chemical. They chose from Freon
12. Freon 12 was used for quite a while un-
til it was discovered that this replacement
chemical was also toxic.
November 2008
Table
Pro and Contra of Content
The Refrigerator
By: Chelsea Echiverri
When Freon 12 was exposed to high tem-
peratures, inhalations of the fumes induced
drowsiness, unconsciousness, and potential
brain damage. Skin contact with Freon 12
required medical attention. It was also the
first chemical discovered to be destructive
to the ozone layer.
After Freon 12, a series of replacement
chemicals continued to be dangerous to the
ozone layer. In the early 1970s, refrigera-
tion companies began using CFC, or chlo-
rofluorocarbons. Unlike the other chemi-
cals, no reports were made stating that CFC
was harmful to people, but like Freon 12, it
damaged the ozone. Once CFC reaches the
atmosphere and is hit by sunlight, the sun's Alex Von Bismark, a leading member of the
rays break chemical bonds chlorine atoms Environmental Investigation Agency.
are relas a result of the chemical breakup.
These extremely reactive atoms pull apart
ozone molecules to form the hole in the
ozone layer.
Ever since the Montreal Protocol of 1987,
CFC refrigerators have been replaced with
HCFC, hydrochlorfluorocarbons. HCFC
destroys 98% less ozone than CFC, but still
does the entire process. For HCFC, it just
takes more time. HCFC is an acceptable al-
ternative for the time being, but we need to
find something else very soon. Otherwise,
our world's well-being will lack existence
and so will the inhabitants of the planet. A person's buttox eaten away by the chemi-
More and more animals are becoming ex- cal, ammonia in large amounts.
tinct. How long will be until it is our turn?
11
Technologic

12 Technologic
 The Refrigerator

November 2008 13
Technologic
Statistical Analysis
Impact in Statistics
These numbers don’t lie
Did you know that the first refrigerator
cost $1000? That is more than twice of the
price that an automobile cost in 1911. That
price increased $200 by 19203. In 1922, a
model came out that consisted of a cube
wooden cool box, water-cooled compres-
sor, an ice cube tray and an 9 cubic com-
partment for $7142. The first refrigerator to
be used widespread was the General Elec-
tric “Monitor-Top” refrigerator introduced
in 1927. Over 1,000,000 units were pro-
duced3. Home units did not go into mass
production until after World War II. The
first successful electric household refrig-
erator was produced in the U.S, and offered
for sale in 19131. By 1920, over 200 com-
panies were manufacturing different types
of refrigerators, and at the same time, many
of the companies had developed technolo-
gies to produce a refrigerator/freezer com-
bination4.
In the 1930s, Freon 12 became the most
The type of new energy-efficient refrigerators and how many are actually available.
14
By: Madeline Montalov
commonly used refrigerant, replacing Sul-
fur Dioxide. Refrigeration technology be-
gan booming in the ‘50s and ‘60s when
innovations like automatic defrosts and
automatic icemakers started to appear. In
the ‘70s and ‘80s, the environment became
top priorities, which lead to more energy-
efficient refrigerators and the elimination
of chlorofluorocarbons in refrigeration
sealed systems2. Making the refrigerators
more energy-efficient increased the cost
of refrigerators, but decreased the cost of
electricity bills.
The refrigerator is Americas most used ap-
pliance today. They can be found in more
than 99.5% of American homes2. Refrig-
erators have not been around for a long
time, but have made their way into millions
of peoples homes in just a short amount of
time. The creation of the refrigerator has
changed the way people have lived over the
years. They are truly revolutionary. This kind of refrigerator would have cost
around $1000 back in the 1920s.
(A refrigerator today costs around $3000, depend-
ing on model and type.
Technologic
 Statistics, Numbers,
The Refrigerator
Data...

The cost of refrigerators from different companies as they increase over the years, starting with the year 1993.

About 99.5% of American households contains a refrigerator.

November 2008 15
Technologic
Science
Breaking it Down
The science behind the appliance you use most
Y ou don’t know how much of a luxury
the refrigerator really is. Have you
ever thought about what would you do
without a refrigerator? Since the dawn of
mankind, refrigeration has been a hot topic.
Food goes bad very quickly, especially in
summer. There are a number of ways to
preserve food: spicing, smoking, pickling
and drying. But these methods change the
taste of the foods and don’t keep it fresh;
they just conserve it. Slowing down the
growth of germs is the only way to keep
food fresh longer. One way to do this is
to put the foods in cool areas, like under-
ground or during the winter, outside of the
house2.
The first refrigerator machine was
The World of Matter
Everything in this world is built with atoms. Your table, your food, your water, your pencil and you are composed of a countless number
of atoms. The matter has 3 different states: solid, liquid and gas.
In the solid state the atoms/particles are
packed closely together and have a fixed
shape. They cannot move freely around,
they can only vibrate. Their amplitude de-
pends on the temperature. The higher the
temperature is the bigger the amplitude, be-
cause of this the volume may increase due
to temperature or very high pressure. Sol-
ids can only change their shape by force, as
when broken or cut.
16
designed by the American inventor Oliver
Evans in year 1805. This fridge ran on va-
por cooling, which causes water to evapo-
rate, making the surrounding area drop in
temperature. But this design was never
built. Based on Oliver Evans’ concept, Ja-
cob Perkins obtained a patent for the first
refrigerator machine that used liquefied
ammonia (NH3) to as a refrigerant.
In year 1834, Jacob Perkins first pat-
ented the closed circuit vapor-compression
refrigeration system and set a milestone
and the base for modern refrigerators. After
about 40 years, 1876 Carl von Linde used
ammonia as refrigerant.
In the 1900s the refrigerators used
Ammonia (NH3)¬, Sulfur dioxide (SO2),
A liquid does not have a definite shape, but
it is determined by its container. The vol-
ume depends on temperature or very high
pressure. These particles are usually far-
ther apart than in a solid (with the notewor-
thy exception of water, H2O), and they can
slide past each other easily.
By: Jason Li
but the problem was that the refrigerators
were leaking toxic gases. Other manufac-
tures used propane or butane which were
not toxic but flammable.
In the 1930s, sometime after World
War II, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) started
to be used as refrigerants and the fridge
became more commonplace. But CFCs
caused environmental problems and de-
stroyed the ozone if it leaked from old re-
frigerators. Today we mostly use carbon
dioxide, ammonia, and also rarely CFCs in
older industry systems1, 5.
A gas has no definite shape or volume, but
occupies the entire container in which it is
confined. It is very easy to compress gas
because the particles of a gas are far apart
from each other, and can move around
quickly.
Technologic
 TheHow
Refrigerator
it works

Unit Definitions
Newton (N): Newton is a measurement of
force. On Earth one Newton is the gravity
force of about 102g (this depends on the
distance to Earth's core). On the moon we
would only have 1/6 of this force because
the moon has less mass and is smaller.

Kelvin (K): Kelvin is a measurement for

temperature. 0 Kelvin is at the absolute
zero (− 273.15°C, − 459.67°F). This point
is physically not obtainable, because at
this point the particles do not move. Kel-
vin is also used the declare temperature
intervals: 1 K = 1 °C = 1.8 °F.

Joule (J): Joule is a measurement for

energy, heat, electricity, and mechanical
work. A joule is one Nm (Newton meter)
or 1 Watt is 1 Joule per second.

Pascal (Pa): Pascal is a measurement for

pressure. 1Pascal equals 1N/m2.
Bar: 100.000Pascal
The melting and boiling points depend on the pressure. With an increasing pressure, the
boiling point increases, at a lower pressure molecules don’t need as much “swing” to
exhaust into the air. This is used, for example, in the pressure cooker to speed up cooking.
Continued on Page 20

Micro (μ) = 1/1,000,000

Mili (m) = 1/1,000
Centi (c) = 1/100
deci (d) = 1/10
Unit = 1
Deca (da) = 10
hecto (h) = 100
kilo (K) = 1,000
mega (M) = 1,000,000
giga (G) = 1,000,000,000

November 2008 17
Technologic

18 Technologic
 The Refrigerator

November 2008 19
Technologic
Science

Aggregate Changing The Refrigerant

A solid can change its state of matter if it Theoretically any substance can be used as
is at its melting point. To change into a liq- refrigerant, but there is a list of criteria, to
uid the solid needs additional energy. This be a refrigerant, that only a few substances
energy needed for melting is called the spe- are capable of meeting.
cific melting energy which is different for • Ability to change state at low pressure
each substance. For example: To liquefy • Non-explosive
1kg ice at 0°C to 1kg water at 0°C – a heat • Non-combustible
energy of 335kJ is needed to change the • Non-toxic
state of matter. Because this energy causes • Non-acidic
a change of the state that you cannot feel, • Chemically stable
this is called latent heat. • Easily noticeable (smell able, measure-
able)
Water would be the perfect refrigerant, but
water is not usable under 0°C and over
4°C4.
By delivering heat energy to a 0°C water
the temperature increases to its boiling
point. Unlike latent heat, the energy in-
creasing the temperature does not cause a
change of state, but you can feel it, this is
sensible heat.
The energy needed for increasing
the temperature by 1 K (Kelvin) is called
specific heat capacity. Water has a specific
heat capacity of 4.19kJ per kilogram (kilo-
joules, 1000joules). From this it follows
that 419kJ is needed to increase the temper-
ature of water from 0°C to 100°C, where
water begins to boil. Assume that water
does not lose any energy during the heating Ammonia: NH3
process and is under standard laboratory Density: 0.771kg/m2
pressure (1013hPa, sea-level air-pressure). Evaporating temperature: -33.4°C
For evaporating water at 100°C an addi- Specific heat capacity: 2160J/kgK
tional 2257kJ vaporization heat is needed Specific vaporization heat: 1371kJ/kg

Condensation is the reverse of evapora-

tion. To liquefy gas, you need to lose the
same quantity of energy needed for evapo-
ration. Because condensation is a cooling
process, it is very important in refrigeration
machines.

20 Technologic
 TheHow
Refrigerator
it works

Cooling Circuit

The refrigerant, in this case ammonia, en-
ters the fridge as liquid the refrigerator with
a pressure of about 1bar. This low pressure
lowers the evaporating point of the refrig-
erant.
Because inside of the refrigerator, at the
evaporator is warmer than -30°C (-22°F),
the refrigerant evaporates in the evaporator
and takes the heat energy, for evaporating
from the cooling area.
After ammonia evaporated the he compres-
sor exhausts the low-pressure vapor refrig-
erant from the evaporator, compresses it,
and brings it up to a higher pressure (about
8bar) to higher the condensation point.
Outside of the refrigerator, the condenser
extracts the heat and liquefies the refriger-
ant.
After that the valve expands the liquid re-
frigerant to a lower pressure and the cycle
starts all over again3.

November 2008 21
Technologic

Citations
Throughout the Ages
1
Ament, Phil. “Refrigerator.” Refrigeration History - Invention of the Refrigerator. 18 August 2005. The Great Idea Finder. 6 Novem-
ber 2008 <http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/refrigerator.htm>.
2
Bellis, Mary. “The History of the Refrigerator and Freezers.” About.com. New York Times. 6 November 2008<http://inventors.about.
com/library/inventors/blrefrigerator.htm>.
3
“Food Preservation.” Wikipedia. 12 November. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 16 November 2008<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_
preservation>.
4
Haley, Carol. The Refrigerator. 14 April 2003. Umw.edu.
�������������������������������������������������������������������������
6 November 2008<http://www.umw.edu/hisa/resources/student%20pro-
jects/carol%20haley%20--%20refrigerator/students.mwc.edu/_chale6kt/fridge/index-2.html>.
5
“History of the Refrigerator.” Modern Marvels. History Channel. 6 November 2008 <http://www.history.com/exhibits/modern/fridge.
html>.
6
Krasner-Khiat, Barbara. “The Impact of Refrigeration.” History-Magazine. February-March. History Channel. 6 November 2008<
http://history-magazine.com/refrig.html>.
7
“Refrigeration.” Wikipedia. 16 November 2008. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 16 November 2008<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrig-
eration>.
8
“Refrigerator.” Wikipedia. 16 November 2008. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 16 November 2008<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrig-
erator>.
9
Wessels, Sharon. “Would you like salmonella with that?” – Refrigeration and Food. Northland College. 26 March 2002. 16 Novem-
ber 2008<http://www.northland.cc.mn.us/owl/MLA%20sample%20paper.htm>.
10
“What are the methods people have used to preserve food?” WikiAnswers. Answers.com. 6 November 2008<http://wiki.answers.
com/q/what_are_the_methods_people_have_used_to_preserve_food>.

Impact in Statistic
1
“Fridge History.” Barfly.com. 17 March 2002. 14 November 2008 <http://www.barfly.ca/english/history.html>.
2
“History of the Refrigerator.” Modern Marvels. History Channel. 5 November 2008 <http://www.history.com/exhibits/modern/fridge
html>.
3
“Refrigerator.” Wikipedia. 21 October. 2006. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 14 November 2008 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/refrige
tor>.
4
“What is the History of the Refrigerator?” Wisegeek.com. 3 February 2003. 15 November 2008 <http://www.wisegeek.com/what
is-thehistory-of-the-refrigerator.htm>.

Breaking it Down
1
“The History of the Refrigerator and Freezers.” About.com. The New York Times Company. 6 Nov. 2008 <http://inventors.about.
com/library/inventors/blrefrigerator.htm>.
2
“The Impact of Refrigeration.” History Magazine.
3
“Kühlschrank.“ Leifi Physik. Technische Universität München. 6 Nov. 2008 <http://leifi.physik.uni-muenchen.de/web_ph09/umwelt_
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