MODULE – 1
INTRODUCTION
• Concept of ecology and ecosystem
• Structure and function of ecosystem
• Basic concept of population and community ecology
• Ecological succession
• Characteristic features of the following
a) Forest ecosystem
b) Grassland ecosystem
c) Desert ecosystem
d) Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, wetlands,
rivers, oceans, estuaries)
Case studies.
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CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM
ECOLOGY
• Ecology is the study of relationships of living organisms
with their environment.
• Ecology is usually divided into different levels of study,
including organismal ecology, population ecology,
community ecology, and ecosystem ecology
• The word ecology was coined in 1866 by the German
scientist Ernst Haeckel.
• It combines two Greek words – “Oikos” (dwelling place
or house) and “Logos” (the study of)
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ECOSYSTEM
• An ecosystem is a community of living organisms and
their physical environment that interact with each other
so that the flow of energy leads to clearly defined
trophic structure, biotic diversity and material cycles
within the system ie., ecosystem.
• Ecosystems can be natural or artificial, and can be
found on land or in water.
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Types of
Ecosystems
Aquatic
Terrestrial
Forest
Freshwater Marine Estuarine
Grassland
Ponds Oceans
Lakes
Wetlands
Desert Streams
Rivers
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STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM
• The structure of an ecosystem refers to the way in
which its components are organized and interact with
one another
• Structure includes
• The composition of biological community – species,
numbers, biomass, life history, distribution in space etc
• The quantity and distribution of abiotic materials – nutrients,
water etc
• The range or gradient of conditions of existence –
temperature, light etc.
• The structural part of the ecosystem has two major
components
• Abiotic
• Biotic
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Components of Ecosystem
Abiotic Biotic
Climatic Edaphic Topographic Autotrophic
(Producers)
pH, Height Slope
Rain, Light,
Minerals,
Wind, Heterotrophic
Oxygen
Temperature (Consumers)
in soil
Macroconsumers Microconsumers
Primary Secondary Tertiary Decomposers
consumers consumers consumers
Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores 6
FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM
• The rate of biological energy flow i.e., the production
and respiration rates of the community
• The rate of materials or nutrient cycles
• The concept of food chain, food web and ecological
pyramids - It maintains a balance among the various
trophic levels in the ecosystem.
• Biological or ecological regulation
• Regulation of organism by environment (photoperiodism)
• Regulation of environment by organism (nutrient cycles)
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BASIC CONCEPT OF POPULATION AND
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
POPULATION ECOLOGY
• A population is a group of individuals of the particular
species that live in a particular area at a specific time.
• Key areas of population ecology include
• Population characteristics
• Population dynamics
• Population density
1. Population characteristics
• Size and density – Size is generally expressed as the number
of individuals in a population.
• More informative is estimation of density which is the number of
individuals per unit area (or volume) of environment
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• Dispersion – It is the spatial pattern of individuals in a
population relative to one another. Three basic patterns are
• Regular dispersion – Individuals are more or less spaced at equal
distance from one another. This is rare in nature but is common in
managed systems (cropland)
• Random dispersion – Position of one individual is unrelated to the
positions of its neighbours. This is also relatively rare in nature.
• Clumped dispersion – Most populations exhibit this dispersion to
some extent, with individuals aggregated into patches interspersed with
no or few individuals. Such aggregations may result from social
aggregations such as family groups.
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• Age structure - The proportions of individuals in different age
group is called age structure of that population. The model
representing geometrically the proportions of different age
groups of any organism is called “age pyramid”.
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• Natality – Number of offsprings produced per female per unit
time and is equivalent to the birth rate
• Mortality – Refers to the death of individuals in the population.
• Life Tables - Information on natality and mortality in different
ages and sexes can be combined in the form of life tables and
provides the net reproductive rate of the population.
2. Population Dynamics
• It is important to follow the changes in the population
• The approaches to study dynamics include mathematical models,
laboratory studies and field studies.
3. Regulation of Population Density
• Population density can be increased by natality or immigration
and decreased by mortality or emigration.
• Density dependent factors include competition and predation.
• Intraspecific density dependent interactions regulate populations
in laboratory and hence these are self-regulating.
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COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
• Group of several species (plants and animals) living
together with mutual tolerance and beneficial
interactions in a natural area is known as community.
• It includes only the living entities of the area.
• The various characteristics include
• Composition
• Structure
• Origin and Development
1. Composition
• Communities may be small or large, large ones extend over
several thousands of square kilometers, like forests, deserts etc
• Very small sized communities include microbes in microhabitats
as leaf surface, soil etc
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• In each community, there are diverse species, where all species
are not equally important.
• There are few overtopping species, which by their bulk and
growth modify the habitat and control the growth of other
species in community and are known as dominants.
2. Structure
• This is the recognizable pattern in the spatial arrangement of
their members
• Structurally, community may be divided
• Horizontally into subcommunities and constitutes zonation in the
community
• Eg in deep ponds and lakes, there are three zones – littoral zone, limnetic
zone and profundal zone.
• Vertically, community is divided into stratification
• Eg in forest community, there are five vertical subdivisions – subterranean,
forest floor, herbaceous vegetation, shrubs, trees
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3. Origin and Development
• In barren area, there reach seeds and is migration
• Few are capable of successful growth and is called ecesis
• As a result of migration and ecesis, species colonize new areas
– colonization.
• Various interrelations between organisms include
• Competition
• Stratification
• Cohabitation
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ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
• Ecological succession is the process by which the
species and habitats in an area change over time.
• It can occur in areas that are lifeless or have been
disturbed by events like volcanic eruptions or
deforestation.
• Types of ecological succession
• Primary succession - Occurs in areas that are essentially
lifeless, like new sand dunes or lava flows and groups of
organisms establishing there are known as primary colonizers
• Secondary succession - Occurs when an area that previously
had an ecological community is disturbed, like by a fire or flood
and this succession is comparatively more rapid.
• Autogenic succession – Community modifies its own
environment, as a result of its reactions with the environment,
causing its own replacement by new communities.
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• Allogenic succession – Replacement of existing community
occurs when outside forces, like drought or fire, drive changes
to the ecosystem
• Cyclic succession - Occurs when a small number of species
replace each other over time
• Autotrophic succession – Characterized by early and
continued dominance of autotrophic organisms like green
plants and begins in a predominantly inorganic environment
and energy flow is maintained indefinitely. Also there is gradual
increase in organic matter content supported by energy flow.
• Heterotrophic succession – Characterized by early
dominance of heterotrophs like bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi
and animals and begins in a predominantly organic
environment and there is progressive decline in the energy
content.
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• Stages of ecological succession
• Nudation: Development of bare site is by a disturbance and
causes may be
• Topographic – soil erosion, deposition of sand, landslide, volcanic
activity
• Climatic – glaciers, dry period, hailstorm, frost, fire
• Biotic – anthropogenic like destruction of forests, grassland; disease
epidemics due to bacteria, viruses
• Invasion: Successful establishment of species in bare area and
stages include
• Migration (dispersal) – The seeds, spores or other propagules of the
species reach the bare area and is generally brought about by air, water
etc.
• Ecesis (establishment) – After reaching the new area, the process of
successful establishment of the species, as a result of adjustment with
the conditions prevailing there, is known as ecesis and the individuals of
species become established in the area.
• Aggregation – After ecesis, as a result of reproduction, the individuals of
species become established in the area.
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• Competition: Species compete for space, light, and nutrition.
When individuals of a species affect each other’s life in various
ways, it is called coaction.
• Reaction: The mechanism of modification of the environment
through the influence of living organisms on it is known as
reaction. As a result, changes take place in soil, water, light
conditions, temperature etc. of the environment. As a result, the
conditions become unsuitable for the existing community which
sooner or later is replaced by another community.
• Stabilization: Final terminal community becomes more or less
stabilized for longer period of time and maintain in equilibrium
with the climate of the area. This is not replaced and is known
as the climax community
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CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF
1) FOREST ECOSYSTEM
• Forests cover 31% of the Earth's land, which is about
4.06 billion hectares.
• As of 2023, India's forest cover is 25.17% of the country's
land area, which is 8,27,357 square kilometers. This
includes 7,15,343 square kilometers of forest and
1,12,014 square kilometers of tree cover.
• Eg: Tropical rain forests, deciduous forests, temperate
forests, coniferous forests
• Components include
• Abiotic – light conditions, inorganic and organic substances in
soil and atmosphere, dead organic debris – litter
• Biotic –
• Producers - species diversity includes trees, shrubs and ground vegetation
• Consumers – Macroconsumers include
• Primary consumers herbivores- elephants, flies, beetles, bugs,
grasshoppers, bees, squrrel 19
• Secondary consumers – snakes, birds, lizards
• Tertiary consumers – lion, tiger
• Microconsumers- decomposers – fungi(aspergillus, fusarium), bacteria
(bacillus, pseudomonas), actinomycetes (streptomyces)
• Energy flow and nutrient cycling: These processes characterize
the functioning of forest ecosystems.
• Biomass production: Forests produce biomass.
• Renewable resources: Forests are naturally renewable resources.
2) DESERT ECOSYSTEM
• Deserts cover approximately one third (33%) of the Earth's land
surface area.
• Polar deserts make up around 14.2 million square kilometer of
earth's area and Sahara desert covers around 3.3 square miles.
• Deserts have low humidity levels during the day, and high humidity
levels at night.
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• Deserts have low population densities, barren land,
water scarcity, high wind velocity, sparsity of cloud
cover, absence of water vapor in air.
• Examples include Thar, Sahara, Gobi,
• Abiotic factors in a desert include:
• Temperature: Extreme temperatures, both hot and cold
• Precipitation: Low precipitation
• Humidity: Lack of humidity
• Soil: Sandy and rocky soils
• Sunlight: maximum sunlight
• Wind: gusty Wind
• Bedrock: Exposed bedrock
• Biotic components
• Producers – shrubs, bushes, grasses and few trees. Sometimes a few
succulents like cacti are also present. Some lower plants like lichens and
xerophytic mosses may also be present
• Consumers – camels (ship of desert), reptiles, insects, nocturnal rodents
live under xeric conditions (extreme dryness or lack of water)
• Decomposers – very few, due to poor vegetation, amount of dead organic
matter is less. Only found are thermophilic fungi and bacteria.
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3) GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
• Grasslands cover is estimated at 52.5 million square
kilometres, or approximately 40% of the Earth's land
surface.
• This means that grasslands are one of the most
prominent land cover types on the planet, found on every
continent except Antarctica.
• Types of grasslands: Different types of grasslands
include savannas (found in Africa), prairies (North
America), pampas (South America), and steppes
(Eurasia).
• Abiotic – Nutrients in soil
Sunlight is important for the survival of autotrophic
organisms
The air supplies plants with oxygen and carbon dioxide
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Grasslands receive enough rain to support grasses and
scrubby plants, but not enough for forests
Temperature: Grasslands have cold winters and hot summers
Wind: Grasslands are often windy
• Biotic component includes
• Producers – various species of grasses
• Consumers – Primary (herbivores – cows, buffaloes, deer, sheep, rabbit,
insects, termites)
Secondary (fox, jackals, snakes, frog, lizard, birds
Tertiary (hawks)
• Decomposers – microbes active in decay of organic matter include fungi
(Aspergillus, Mucor, Rhizopus, Fusarium) and bacteria like actinomycetes
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4. FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM
• Covers less than 2.2% of earth’s surface.
• 3.9 % of earth’s water is not saline with
• polar ice and ground water (3.7%) and
• surface freshwater (0.2%).
• Ecological services
• nutrient cycling, climate moderation, waste treatment,
ground water recharge, habitat for many species, genetic
resources and biodiversity
• Economic services
• food, drinking water, irrigation water, hydroelectricity,
transportation, recreation.
• May be of two types:
• A. Lentic- standing water eg., lakes, ponds, inland wetlands.
B. Lotic- running water eg., rivers, springs.
• These habitats are collectively called LIMNETIC and
study of physical, chemical and biological properties of
freshwater bodies is called LIMNOLOGY.
• Biotic community-
• planktons (free floating organisms)
• nektons (free swimming organisms)
• benthos (bottom dwellers)
• epineuston(float on the surface of water)
• hyponeuston (live right under the surface) and
• periphyton (organisms attached to submerged surfaces)
• Producers:
• Primarily phytoplankton (microscopic algae) which generate food
through photosynthesis.
• Consumers:
• small insects, larvae, tadpoles, fish, and larger predators depending
on the pond.
• Decomposers:
• Bacteria and fungi that break down dead organic matter from plants
and animals, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.
• Abiotic factors in a pond ecosystem include:
• water temperature
• Sunlight
• dissolved oxygen
• pH level
• nutrient availability
• water clarity (turbidity)
• Depth
• substrate type and
• amount of dissolved minerals
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5. MARINE ECOSYSTEM
• Covers 71% of earth’s surface.
• Includes oceans, coastal wetlands, shorelines, coral
reefs.
• Actual salinity varies in different marine habitats, with
an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand (ppt) of
water.
• Ecological services
• climate moderation, CO2 absorption, nutrient cycling, waste
treatment, genetic resources and biomass.
• Economic services
• food, animal and pet feed, pharmaceuticals, harbors and
transportation routes, coastal habitats for human, recreation,
employment, oil and natural gases.
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• Abiotic factors in marine ecosystems
• Temperature
• Salinity
• Sunlight
• Nutrients
• pH
• oxygen and
• ocean currents.
• Biotic factors
• Producers:
• Phytoplankton (microscopic algae) are primary producers in the
marine ecosystem, generating food through photosynthesis.
• Consumers:
• Various fish species, marine mammals (whales, dolphins),
invertebrates (squid, crabs), and sea turtles are examples of
consumers that feed on producers and other consumers.
• Decomposers:
• Bacteria and fungi play a crucial role in breaking down dead
organic matter.
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6. ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
• Estuaries are partially enclosed coastal area of
brackish water (salinity varies between 0-35 ppt) with
one or more rivers or streams flowing into it.
• Estuaries form a transition zone (ecotone) between
river environments and maritime environments.
• Examples of estuaries are river mouths, coastal bays,
tidal marshes, lagoons and deltas.
• At the estuaries, freshwater carrying fertile silt and
runoff from the land mixes with the salty sea water.
• Estuaries are greatly influenced by tidal action, where
they are periodically washed by sea water once or
twice a day based on the number of tides.
• All the plants and animals in the estuaries are
subjected to variations in salinity to which they are
adapted (osmoregulation).
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• Estuaries are divided into three zones: the lower estuary,
middle estuary, and upper estuary.
• Lower estuary
• Also known as the marine estuary, this zone connects to the open
sea
• This zone is strongly influenced by the tides and dominated by the
salt water of the ocean.
• One feature of the habitat is that it is constantly changing: for
example, sand islands and deep gullies form and disappear with the
tides.
• Middle estuary
• This zone is where salt water and fresh water mix in large quantities,
creating a brackish water.
• This is tidally influenced.
• Upper estuary
• Also known as the fluvial estuary, this zone is characterized by
freshwater and tidal action
• Further upstream follows the river, which is no longer influenced by
the tides and in which freshwater predominates.
• The upper limit of the estuary is thus marked by the absence of tidal
influence.
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• Estuarine ecosystem benefits
• They provide food, resting areas, and breeding grounds for
migratory birds and sea mammals
• They are nurseries for fish and crustaceans
• They provide food for humans, such as fish and shellfish
• They provide recreation
• Abiotic Features
• Temperature
• Sunlight
• Water and solubility
• Biotic Communities
• Plants include mangrove trees, phytoplankton, algae,
seaweed, marsh grasses.
• Animals such as shrimp, fish, oysters, sea anemones, blue
crabs, and zoo-plankton
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