Cell Structure

What you should know

After studying this subtopic you should be able to:

1.​ Outline cell theory and describe the structure and components of a typical cell.
2.​ Summarise how to make and stain temporary mounts of cells and tissues.
3.​ Describe how to use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometre to measure sizes of a
specimen.
4.​ Perform calculations involving actual size, image size and magnification.
5.​ Outline the applications of electron microscopy.
6.​ Describe the application of techniques that are commonly used in microscopy.
7.​ Outline the structures that are common to cells in all living organisms.
8.​ Describe the structure of a typical prokaryotic cell and the function of prokaryotic cell
structures and components.
9.​ Describe the structure of a typical eukaryotic cell and the function of eukaryotic cell
structures and components.
10.​ Name the eight processes that all living things carry out.
11.​ Identify how different unicellular organisms carry out each of the eight life processes.
12.​ Outline how there may be differences in the cell structure of plant, animal and fungal
cells.
13.​ Give examples of eukaryotic cells with atypical cell structure

Higher level (HL)

14.​ Describe the theory of endosymbiosis.

15.​ Outline the evidence supporting the theory of endosymbiosis.
16.​ Outline that changes in the environment of a cell can trigger changes in gene
expression, and this process can lead to cell differentiation.
17.​ Outline the benefits of multicellularity.

A2.2.0 The Big Picture

Guiding Question(s):
➔​ What are the features common to all cells and the features that differ?
➔​ How is microscopy used to investigate cell structure?
Notes:
●​ Robert Hooke - an english scientist and investor
●​ Robert Hooke discovered small compartments that made up the cork, which he called
“cells”. He called these cells because they reminded him of small rooms or ‘cellula’ in
a monastery.
●​ The discovery of the cells was an important milestone in the field because it provides
the first evidence that living organisms are made up of small, discrete units.

●​ An original illustration showing robert

Hooke’s microscope
●​ Cells come in various different shapes, sizes and functions (the tiny crescent shaped
bacteria called Pelagibacter ubique is 0.5μm in length. Some of the animal nerve cells
can be over 1 m in length)
A2.2.1-2 Using Microscopes
Learning Outcomes:
➔​ Outline cell theory and describe the structure and components of a typical cell
➔​ Summarize how to make and stain temporary mounts of cells and tissues.
➔​ Describe how to use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer to measure sizes of a
specimen.
➔​ Perform calculations involving actual size, image size and magnification.
Notes:
●​ Microscopes are scientific instruments which are used to magnify objects or images that
are too small to be seen.
●​ The first microscope is thought to be developed in the 17th century and used to view
small objects and animals like insects.
●​ Robert Hooke and Antoni Van Leeuwnehoek were credited with discovering
microorganisms using light microscopes (similar to the ones which are used in
schools).
●​ Light microscopes use lenses and light to magnify the objects by 10-400 times their
actual size.

●​ the first published illustration of

microorganism, a ‘hairy mold’ published by Orbert Hooke in 1665 in his book
Micrographia. The scale on the bottom shows the actual size of the part of the specimen
1/32 inch (0.8mm).
●​ Microscopes are used in different fields like biology, medicine and material science.
●​ There are 2 types of microscopes:
➢​ Light microscopes
➢​ Electron microscopes
●​ From the beginning of the 19th century scientists developed light microscopes with
sufficient power to allow observation that plant and animal tissues are made up of
many individual cells.
●​ Microscopes have helped scientists to see the structures that make the cells in detail.
●​ How to use the microscope:
➢​ Start with the lowest magnification possible and stage at the highest position.
➢​ To get a clear image of the specimen, adjust the focus of the microscope using
the coarse focus and the fine focus.
➢​ Look through the eyepiece and use the coarse focus wheel to adjust the distance
between the spaceman and the objective lens until it comes to focus.
➢​ Turn the knob counterclockwise to move the spiceman further from the lens and
move clockwise to move in back up.
 ➢​ Use fine focus to make the smaller adjustments in the distance between the
objective lens and the specimen to bring focus.
➢​ After having a clear image, you can adjust the magnification by rotating the
nosepiece to use a different objective lens.
●​ Cell theory:
➢​ People used to believe that living organisms could spontaneously appear from
non-living matter, the theory of ‘spontaneous generation’.
➢​ Robert Hooke and Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of cells using the light
microscope in 1655, made the theory questionable.
➢​ Robert Hooke’s observation led to the development of the cell theory.
➢​ Cell theory states that all living things are made up of individual units, cells,
which are the basic units of life, and all cells arise from other cells.
➢​ In 1859, the spontaneous generation was debunked. (false)
●​ Using eyepiece graticules and stage micrometers
➢​ Eyepiece lens of the light microscopes will be fitted with an eyepiece graticule.
Eyepiece graticules contain a scale or grid. So, when we look through the
eyepiece lens, the scale will be superimposed on theis image of the specimen.
➢​ To work out the size of the specimen that is viewed, stage micrometers can be
used to calibrate an eyepiece graticule.
➢​ Stage micrometers are small, calibrated rulers that are mounted onto the stage
of the microscope.
➢​ Stage micrometer shows the actual size of the image using divisions that are
each 100μm (0.1mm) apart.
➢​ Each 100μm division of the stage micrometer is equivalent to 20 eyepiece
graticule divisions which means that one graticule division is equal to 5μm.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
➢​ 1 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
 ➢​ using a stage micrometer and an
eyepiece graticule
●​ Converting between units:
➢​ Since cells and cell structures are too small to be measured using millimeters,
it is measured using micrometers (μm) as a unit measurement. One millimeter
is equal to 1000 micrometers.
★​ 1000 microliter in 1 millimeter
★​ 0.001 millimeter in 1 micrometer
➢​ Some cells or cell structures are measured in nanometres even though most
cells range from 0.1 to 100 micrometers.
➢​ Nanometres are usually measurements for proteins, viruses, wavelengths of
light.
➢​ 1 nanometre is equal to 1000 micrometers
★​ 1000 nanometre in 1 micrometer
★​ 0.001 micrometer is 1 nanometre

➢​
●​ Magnification Calculations:
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
➢​ 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
➢​ 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
➢​ 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
A2.2.3 Developments in Microscopy
●​ The ones that are used in school are light microscopes
●​ Light microscopes that pass light through a specimen and then use a lens to magnify
the image produced.
●​ Electron microscopy:
➢​ Unlike light microscopes, electron microscopes pass a beam of electrons through
a specimen. Electrons will be absorbed by the denser parts of the sample, and
scattered or able to pass through less dense areas, after which they are picked
up by an electron detector and used to form an image.

➢​ the
difference between both microscopes
➢​ Since electrons have shorter wavelengths compared to light, electron
microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes.
➢​ The resolution of a light microscope is 200 nm compared with 0.1nm for an
electron microscope. So, if two points are 100 nm apart, they will not be
well-defined and their position will be unclear when viewed using a light
microscope, but will appear much clearer under an electron microscope.
➢​ Due to high resolution in an electron microscope, it can magnify small objects
by about 500,000 times. So, it is good to study small cellular structures as well
as disease- causing particles, such viruses and prions.
 ➢​ Light microscopes with a magnification of about 2000 times, are useful for
studying tissues and living cells in color because they don’t damage the
specimen as electrons do.
➢​ Electron microscopes can only be used to observe dead specimens in black and
white. It offers higher resolution and is used to study the internal structure of a
wide variety of specimens.
●​ Techniques that are commonly used in microscopy:
➢​ Freeze fracture microscopy:
➔​ Involves freezing a sample and then using a specialized tool to break the
sample into small pieces. The small pieces are then observed using an
electron microscope to see the internal structure. This technique is
useful for being able to visualize structures that are not normally visible.
➢​ Cryogenic electron microscopy:
➔​ Involves sample to freeze to cryogenic temperature (-180 °C or colder) to
fix the molecules and making them more firm or stable. The specimen is
then viewed using electron microscopy. By freezing the sample, it
improves the resolution of the image formed and reduces damage that
may occur from the electron beam.
➢​ Immunofluorescence:
➔​ A technique used in light microscopy to better visualize certain
structures. A fluorescent tag called fluorophore is attached to antibodies
specific for antigens on a structure or cell being viewed. When the
antibody binds to the antigen, the structure is then ‘tagged’ with
immunofluorescence. When a certain wavelength of light is shone onto
the fluorescence tag, the tag will emit light of a different wavelength
that can then appear as brightly coloured spots, allowing the
visualization of the location of these target molecules.
➢​ Fluorescent dyes:
➔​ A technique used in light microscopy. When the dye is added to the
sample it will preferentially attack certain structures. As in
immunofluorescence, the labeled areas will appear as brightly coloured
spots, allowing visualization of the target molecule throughout the
specimen.
A2.2.4-6 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
●​ Structures and components of a typical cells
 ➢​ Typical cells contain DNA as genetic material, a cytoplasm composed mainly of
water and a plasma membrane made of lipids encapsulating the cell contents.
●​ Structures and components of a typical prokaryotic cell:
➢​ Prokaryotes are considered to be the earliest and most primitive type of cell,
originating around 3.5 billion years ago.
➢​ Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that do not contain a membrane or
membrane-bound organelles.
➢​ Like eukaryotes, prokaryotes contain ribosomes, the site of protein synthesis.
However, prokaryotic ribosomes (70S) are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes
(80S), where the unit ‘S’ refers to the Svedberg unit.
➢​ Some eukaryotic ribosomes may be bound to membranes and some are free in
the cytoplasm , all prokaryotic ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm.
➢​ Prokaryotic cells usually range in diameter between 0.1 and 5.0μm, while
eukaryotic cells are typically between 10 and 100μm.
➢​ Prokaryotes contain ribosomes (70S) and eukaryotes contain ribosomes (80S)
➢​ ‘S’ stands for Svedberg unit
➢​ Some eukaryotic ribosomes may be bound to membranes and some are free in
the cytoplasm
➢​ All prokaryotic ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm
➢​ Prokaryotic cells usually range in diameter between 0.1 and 5.0 μm
➢​ Eukaryotic cells are typically between 10 and 100μm

➢​
➢​ Bacteria and archaea are types of prokaryotes
➢​ There are enormous variations and number of species and are found everywhere
(including the most inhospitable)
➢​ Typical components of prokaryotic cells:
 ➔​ Cell wall - cell wall is found outside the cell membrane. Has an
important role in protecting the prokaryotic cells against toxins that may
be in the external environment, resisting high osmotic pressures and
maintains the shape of the cell
➔​ Plasma Membrane - separates the cell’s interior from its external
environment and controls what can enter and exit the cell.
➔​ Cytoplasm- water based jelly like fluid that fills the cell, suspends ions,
organic molecules, DNA and ribosomes, and is the site of metabolic
reaction.
➔​ Naked DNA in a loop - DNA stores the information which is necessary for
synthesizing proteins.
❖​ In prokaryotes: the DNA is naked, meaning that it is not
associated with histone protein and found in the nucleoid (no
nucleus)
❖​ In eukaryotes: the DNA is in the nucleus meaning it is
associated with histone protein
➔​ 70S ribosomes - where the translation (protein synthesis) occurs.
Prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller and lower mass than eukaryotic
ribosomes.
➔​ Plasmid - small, circular pieces of DNA that can be transferred from one
prokaryotic cell to another. This is known as horizontal gene transfer (in
contrast to the vertical gene transfer that occurs from reproduction)
➢​ Many prokaryotic cells also contain caps.
➢​ Polysaccharides protect the organism and allow it to adhere to surfaces.
➢​ Prokaryotic cells have flagella (flagella) which is responsible for the locomotion
of the organism, spinning to propel the cell through its medium.
➢​ Some prokaryotic cells contain pili (pilus) on their surface which are protein
filaments on the cell wall that help in cell adhesion and in transferring of DNA
between two cells.
➢​ Bacteria and archaea are both types of prokaryotes.
●​ Structures and components of a typical eukaryotic cell
➢​ Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and membrane -bound cytoplasmic
organelles.
➢​ Are more complex and much larger than prokaryotic cells
➢​ Some eukaryotes are multicellular meaning that the body of the organism
consists of more than one cell
●​ Compartmentalisation
➢​ Eukaryotic cells contains membrane bound cytoplasmic organelles such as
mitochondria and chloroplasts
➢​ Compartmentalisation allows the interior of the organelles to have separate
conditions to the cytoplasm of the cells
➢​ Advantages:
➔​ Ability to create higher concentration of certain substance within the
organelles
➔​ Ability to separate toxins and potentially damaging substances from the
rest of the cell. An example is, hydrolytic enzymes can be stored in
structure called lysosomes, away from the cell cytoplasm
➔​ Control over conditions inside organelles to maintain the optimal
conditions for the enzymes that function in those parts of the cell
●​ Eukaryotic cell structure
➢​ Most of the eukaryotic cells contain:
➔​ Plasma membrane - separates the cell’s interior from its external
environment and controls what can enter and exit the cell.
➔​ Cytoplasm - water based jelly like fluid that fills the cell, suspends ions,
organic molecules, organelles and ribosomes, and is the site of
metabolic reactions.
➔​ Mitochondria - double membrane bound organelles that converts glucose
into ATP (cell’s energy currency) in the process of respiration
➔​ 80S ribosomes - where translation (protein synthesis) occurs, Both
attached and free floating eukaryotic ribosomes are larger and have a
higher mass than prokaryotic ribosomes.
➔​ Nucleus - contains the DNA which is associated with histone proteins
and is organized into chromosomes. The nucleus contains nucleolus,
which are involved in the production of ribosomes. The nucleus has a
double membrane which contains pores through which certain molecules
can pass, including glucose, RNA and ions.
➔​ Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - produces and store lipids (including
steroids)
➔​ Rough endoplasmic reticulum - has ribosomes attached to its surface
which produces proteins that usually destined for use outside the cell
➔​ Golgi apparatus - processes and packages proteins which are then
released in golgi vesicles
 ➔​ Vesicles - small sac that transports and releases substance produced
within the cell by fusing with the cell membrane
➔​ Vacuole - helps to maintain that osmotic balance of the cell. Also me be
used to store substance and sometimes has hydrolytic functions similar
to lysosomes
➔​ Cytoskeleton - a system of protein fibers called microtubules and
microfilaments. It helps to hold organelles in place and maintain the
structure and shape of the cell.
A2.2.7 Processes of Life in Unicellular Organisms
➢​ All prokaryotic cells and some eukaryotic cells are unicellular
➢​ Unicellular organisms have a body composed of only one cell
➢​ Unicellular organisms will be capable of carrying out all of the eight life processes:
➔​ Metabolism - chemical reactions that take place within the cell(s) of an
organism
➔​ Response to stimuli - reacting to changes in the external environment
➔​ Homeostasis - the maintenance of the constant internal conditions despite
changes in the external environment
➔​ Movement - living things have some control over their place and position
➔​ Growth - cells can increase in size over a time period. In multicellular
organisms, growth can also refer to an increase in the number of cells that make
up an organism.
➔​ Reproduction - the production of offspring and can be sexual or asexual
➔​ Excretion - the removal of metabolic waste products
➔​ Nutrition - the intake or production of nutrients. Heterotrophic organisms obtain
their nutrients from the external environments, While autotrophic organisms are
able to produce nutrients from inorganic material.
➢​ Example of unicellular organism
 ➔​ Paramecium is a genus of unicellular protozoa. Are less than 0.25 mm in size

and are heterotrophs.

➔​ Chlamydomonas is a genus of unicellular green algae and is 10 to 30μm in

diameter.
➔​ The difference of how Paramecium and Chlamydomonas carry out the functions of
life:
➔​

Life
functions Paramecium Chlamydomonas
 Growth As it consumes food, the Production of organic molecules
Paramecium enlarges. Once it during photosynthesis and absorption
reaches a certain size it will divide of minerals causes the organism to
into two daughter cells increase in size. Once it reaches a
certain size it will divide into two
daughter cells

Movement The wave action of the beating cilia The flagella of the Chlamydomonas
helps to propel Paramecium in rotates, moving the organism towards
response to changes in the more favorable conditions, such as
environment, for example, towards higher light intensity
warmer water and away from cool
temperatures

Response to Paramecium are able to detect Chlamydomonas senses light changes

stimuli changes in the water temperature in its environment using its eyespot
around them and move in response and then moves toward a brighter
to seek warmer temperatures region to increase the rate of
photosynthesis

Homeostasis A constant internal environment is maintained by collecting excess water in

the contractile vacuoles and then expelling it through the plasma membrane.
This process is called osmoregulation and helps Paramecium and
Chlamydomonas to maintain their water balance
 Nutrition Paramecium is a heterotroph. It Chlamydomonas is an autotroph; it
engulfs food particles in vacuoles uses its large chloroplast to carry out
where digestion takes place. The photosynthesis to produce its own
soluble products are then absorbed food
into the cytoplasm of the cell. It
feeds on microorganisms, such as
bacteria, algae and yeasts

Reproductio It can carry out both sexual and It can carry out both sexual and
n asexual reproduction, though the asexual reproduction. When
latter is more common. The cell Chlamydomonas reaches a certain size,
divides into two daughter cells in a each cell reproduces, either by binary
process called binary fission fission or sexual reproduction
(asexual reproduction)

Excretion Digested nutrients from the food It uses the whole surface of its
vacuoles pass into the cytoplasm, plasma membrane to excrete its waste
and the vacuole shrinks. When the products
vacuole, with its fully digested
contents, reaches the Paramecium's
anal pore, it ruptures, expelling its
waste contents to the environment

A2.2.8-11 Animal, Plant and Fungal Cells

➢​ Animal, plant and fungal are all eukaryotic
➢​ Animal cell:
➔​ Contain centrioles ( are two cylindrical organelles to help established and
organize the microtubules, playing an important role in cell division)
 ➔​ Lysosomes are also found ( are membrane bound bags of hydrolytic enzymes that
break down and destroy biological molecules and old cellular organelles. Are
found in high concentrations in phagocytic white blood cells where they will
fuse with and destroy ingested pathogens)
➔​ Some have vacuoles (Smaller than plant cells and animal vacuoles stores water,
nutrients and waste products)
➔​ Some contain cilia which is important for the movement of substances past the
cell.
➢​ Plant cell:
➔​ Contains a cell wall which is made of a polysaccharide called cellulose. which
protects the cell and resists osmotic pressure, maintaining the shape of the cell.
➔​ Some also contain chloroplasts - double membrane bound organelles that
convert light energy into chemical energy in the process of photosynthesis. It is
one of many types of plastid - a small organelle responsible for manufacturing
and storing chemical energy.
➔​ The green color of chloroplasts comes from chlorophyll, the pigment found
within chloroplasts.
➔​ Vacuole in plant cells is larger than the ones in animal cells and have an
important role in regulating the osmotic potential of the cell.
➢​ Fungal cell:
➔​ Fungal cells have a cell wall but are made out of polysaccharide called chitin.
➔​ Contains large vacuoles which degrade molecules in the cell as well as acting
as a storage site for small molecules like ions.
➔​ Contains centrioles for producing and organizing the cytoskeleton and playing a
key role in cell division.
➔​ Some are unicellular (like saccharomyces cerevisiae)
➔​ Some are multicellular (like mushrooms and toadstools)
➔​ Fungi is reproduce by process called budding
❖​ Budding scar is a crater like ring tissue that forms when a daughter cell
buds from a parent cell. The number of budding scars on a fungal cell is
indicative of how many times the cell has divided)
➢​ Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes
➔​ A typical eukaryotic cell do have a single nucleus
➔​ Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus
➔​ Atypical eukaryotic cells do not have or have abnormal numbers of cell
structures and organelles which are found in other eukaryotic cells.
 ➔​ Example of anucleate and multinucleate eukaryotic cells:
❖​ Skeletal muscle - multinucleated (one single cell containing many
nuclei because the muscle cell has formed from many smaller myocytes
that have fused together)
❖​ Mature red blood cells are anucleate - do not contain a nucleus. Which
means that the cell has greater hemoglobin capacity and can transport
more oxygen.
❖​ Normally, the hyphae of fungi contain separates which separates cellular
structures and organelles whilst still allowing the movement of
substances between cells. Aseptate hyphae in fungi do not have the
cellular partitions that are normally present which causes them to have
many nuclei in a single cellular unit and can be thought of as
multinucleated.
❖​ Sieve tube elements in the phloem of plants are anucleate. They also
contain very little cytoplasm and few organelles. Meaning that there is a
very low resistance for substance moving through a sieve tube element.
A2.2.12-14 Endosymbiosis, Cell Differentiation and the Evolution of Multicellular Organisms (HL)
➢​ Evidence suggests that all eukaryotes evolved from a common unicellular ancestor
around 2.7 billion years ago.
➔​ Common ancestor of all eukaryotic organisms had a nucleus and reproduced
sexually
➢​ Theory of endosymbiosis argues that eukaryotic organisms evolved when this common
ancestor endocytosed a prokaryotic cell capable of generating energy from oxygen.
Rather than being digested, the cells remained inside the host cell, carrying out
aerobic respiration and prodded energy to the host cell, evolving into mitochondria.
➢​ For some eukaryotes, subsequent endocytosis of prokaryotic cells that could convert
light energy into chemical energy (probably cyanobacterium) resulted in the evolution
of chloroplasts.
➢​ Evidence of endosymbiosis:
➔​ Both mitochondria and chloroplasts:
❖​ Measure 8μm in length, which is the same size as many prokaryotic
organisms
❖​ Have double membranes - it is thought that the inner membrane is
formed from the plasma membrane of the endocytosed prokaryotic cell.
And the outer membrane is thought to have formed from the vesicle in
which the cell was taken up into the ancestor of the eukaryotic organism.
 ❖​ Have naked DNA like found in prokaryotes
❖​ Have 70S ribosomes, same as in the prokaryotes rather than the one in
eukaryotes (70S)
❖​ Divided by binary fission like prokaryotic cells (eukaryotic cells are
deceived by mitosis)
❖​ Are susceptible to some antibiotics, compounds that target prokaryotic
structure and metabolic processes
➢​ Cell differentiation
➔​ All prokaryotic organisms are unicellular
➔​ Many fungi, eukaryotic algae, all plant and animals are multicellular
➔​ Different cells have different roles in multicellular organisms and work together
to form tissues and organisms to make multicellular organisms. These are
referred to as specialized cells meaning that they have a distinct set of
structures and functions.
➔​ To be a specialized cell, differentiation must occur

➔​ Cell differentiation involves turning in genes necessary for the function of the
specialized cell and turning which are not necessary. This regulation of gene
expression within the cell can be controlled by the changes in the environment
of the cell.
➔​ During human development, early embryonic cells are undifferentiated, which
makes them unable to perform any specific function. As the embryo develops,
the genes within the cell will be turned on or off by changes in the
environment of the cell (like the presence of proteins called growth factors,
 causing the cells to differentiate into specialized cell types such as muscle
cells and nerve cells)
➔​ Due to the cell differentiation multicellular organisms have a larger body size
and are more complex and adaptable to changes in their environment.
➢​ The evolution of multicellular organism
➔​ Scientists believe multicellularity has evolved repeatedly through a process
called cell aggregation.
➔​ Cell aggregation is where cells cluster together, more efficiently obtaining and
sharing nutrients and benefiting from group protection from predators.
➔​ Some of the cells within the cluster were thought to have differentiated to play
a more specialized role over time.
A2.2.15 Summary and Key terms
➢​ Microscopes are tools for magnifying tiny objects like cells and organisms. In schools,
light microscopes are commonly used, employing light and lenses for magnification.
Techniques like immunofluorescence and fluorescence tagging are applied in light
microscopy. In contrast, electron microscopes use electrons instead of light, offering
higher-resolution and magnification capabilities. Techniques such as freeze fracture and
cryogenic electron microscopy are utilized in electron microscopy.
➢​ To calculate magnification, divide the size of the image by the size of the object. Make
sure both sizes are in the same units for accurate calculations.
➢​ All cells contain DNA as the genetic material, cytoplasm and a plasma membrane
composed of phospholipids.
➢​ 8 process that carried out by all living things:
1.​ Homeostasis
2.​ Metabolism
3.​ Nutrition
4.​ Movement
5.​ Excretion
6.​ Growth
7.​ Response to stimuli
8.​ Reproduction
➢​ Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus, the DNA is naked and free in the cytoplasm.
Also, they do not contain membrane bound organelles and the ribosomes are 70S. In
addition, a typical prokaryotic cell also contains a cell wall and plasmid. Some
prokaryotic cells contain a capsule, flagellum and/or pili.
➢​ Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus, membrane bound organelles and 80S ribosomes. DNA
in eukaryotic cells is bound to histone proteins. Like prokaryotic cells, it contains
cytoplasm, plasma membrane and DNA as the genetic material. A typical eukaryotic cell
contains mitochondria, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, rough endoplasmic reticulum,
golgi apparatus, vesicles, vacuole, and cytoskeleton.
➢​ There 3 types of eukaryotic cells, animal, plant and fungi. Animal cells have centrioles
and lysosomes, some animal cells also contain vacuoles and have cilia. Plant cells
have a cell wall and larger vacuoles compared to animal cells. Some plant cells have
chloroplasts. Fungal cells contain cell walls and large vacuoles (like plant cells) and
have centrioles (like animal cells).
➢​ Some eukaryotic cells are atypical. Some may not contain a nucleus, like red blood
cells and phloem sieve tube elements or may be multinucleate like skeletal muscle
cells and aseptate hyphae in fungi.
➢​ Theory of endosymbiosis states all eukaryotes evolved from a common ancestor which
had a nucleus and reproduced sexually. Also, it is thought that the common ancestor
endocytosed a prokaryotic cell capable of generating energy from oxygen, which enabled
it into the mitochondria. Some also endocytosed a prokaryotic cell which could convert
light energy into chemical energy which results in the evolution of chloroplasts. The
evidence of the theory supporting includes mitochondria and chloroplast both having
double membrane, being roughly the same size a bacterium, contain 70S ribosomes,
dividing by binary fission, having naked, circular DNA and being susceptible to
antibiotics.
➢​ Cell differentiation is the process by which a cell becomes specialized to carry out a
particular function. It involves the turning on of genes necessary for the function and
off the genes which are not necessary. The regulation of genes can be controlled by
changes in the environment of the cell. Cell differentiation has allowed for the
development of multicellularity, which is thought to have evolved repeatedly.