Taylor’s Formula:

If 𝑓 has derivatives of all orders in an open interval 𝐼 containing 𝑎, then for each positive integer
𝑛 and for each 𝑥 in 𝐼.

𝑓 ˊ (𝑎) 𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑎) 2
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 + 𝑅𝑛 (𝑥) ⋯ ⋯ (1)
1! 2! 𝑛!
𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝑐)
where 𝑅𝑛 (𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛+1 for some 𝑐 between 𝑎 and 𝑥.
(𝑛+1)!

Equation (1) is called Taylor’s formula. The function 𝑅𝑛 (𝑥) is called the remainder of order 𝑛 or
the error term for the approximation of 𝑓 by 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) over 𝐼.

If 𝑅𝑛 (𝑥) → 0 as 𝑛 → ∞ for all 𝑥 in 𝐼, we say that Taylor series generated by 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑎

converges to 𝑓 on 𝐼, and we write,
∞
𝑓 𝑘 (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘 ⋯ ⋯ (2)
𝑘!
𝑘=0

Again, if the Taylor series generated by 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 0 converges to 𝑓 on 𝐼, and we write,

∞
𝑓 𝑘 (0) 𝑘
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑥 ⋯ ⋯ (3)
𝑘!
𝑘=0

is known as Maclaurin series for 𝑓(𝑥).

𝝅
Example 1: Expand 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 in powers of (𝒙 − 𝟐 ).

Solution: Let,
𝜋 𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑓 ( 2 ) = sin 2 = 1

𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊ ( 2 ) = cos 2 = 0

𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑥) = −sin 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊ ( ) = − sin = −1
2 2

𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ˊˊˊ (𝑥) = −cos 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (2 ) = −cos 2 = 0

And so on.
Now, By Taylor’s Theorem,

𝑓 ˊ (𝑎) 𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑎) 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (𝑎)

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
1! 2! 3!
𝜋 (−1) 𝜋 2 𝜋 3
∴ sin 𝑥 = 1 + 0. (𝑥 − ) + (𝑥 − ) + 0. (𝑥 − ) + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
2 2! 2 2
𝜋 2 𝜋 4
(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 2)
∴ sin 𝑥 = 1 − + −⋯ ⋯ ⋯
2! 4!
Exercise:

1. Expand 𝒍𝒏 𝒙 in powers of (𝒙 − 𝟐).

𝝅
2. Expand 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 in powers of (𝒙 − 𝟐 ).

3. Expand 𝟐𝒙𝟑 + 𝟕𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟏 in powers of (𝒙 − 𝟐).

Maclaurin’s Theorem:

𝑓 ˊ (0) 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) 2 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (0) 3 𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯ ⋯+∞
1! 2! 3! 𝑛!
Example 1: Find the Maclaurin series of 𝒆𝒙 .

Solution: Let,

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(0) = 𝒆𝟎 = 1

𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊ (0) = 𝒆𝟎 = 1

𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) = 𝒆𝟎 = 1

𝑓 ˊˊˊ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (0) = 𝒆𝟎 = 1

And so on.

Now, By Maclaurin’s Theorem,

𝑓 ˊ (0) 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) 2 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (0) 3 𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯ ⋯+∞
1! 2! 3! 𝑛!
1 1 1 1
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 + ⋯ ⋯ + ∞
1! 2! 3! 𝑛!
Example 2: Find the Maclaurin series of 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙.

Solution: Let,

𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓(0) = sin 0 = 0 𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊ (0) = cos 0 = 1

𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑥) = −sin 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) = − sin 0 = 0 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (𝑥) = −cos 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (0) = −cos 0 = −1

𝑓 2𝑘 (𝑥) = (−1)k sin 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 2𝑘 (0) = 0 𝑓 2𝑘+1 (𝑥) = (−1)k cos 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 2𝑘+1 (0) = (−1)k

And so on.

Now, By Maclaurin’s Theorem,

𝑓 ˊ (0) 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) 2 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (0) 3 𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯ ⋯+∞
1! 2! 3! 𝑛!

1 0 2 (−1) 3 (−1)𝑘 2𝑘+1

∴ sin 𝑥 = 0 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯+ 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯+ ∞
1! 2! 3! (2𝑘 + 1)!

𝑥3 𝑥5 (−1)𝑘 2𝑘+1
∴ sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑥 +⋯ ⋯+∞
3! 5! (2𝑘 + 1)!

Example 3: Find the Maclaurin series of 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙.

Solution: Let,

𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓(0) = cos 0 = 1 𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) = −sin 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊ (0) = − sin 0 = 0

𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑥) = −cos 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) = − cos 0 = −1 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (0) = sin 0 = 0

𝑓 2𝑘 (𝑥) = (−1)k cos 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 2𝑘 (𝑥) = (−1)k 𝑓 2𝑘+1 (𝑥) = (−1)k sin 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 2𝑘+1 (0) = 0

And so on.

Now, By Maclaurin’s Theorem,

𝑓 ˊ (0) 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) 2 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (0) 3 𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯ ⋯+∞
1! 2! 3! 𝑛!

0 (−1) 2 0 3 (−1)𝑘 2𝑘
∴ cos 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯+ ∞
1! 2! 3! 2𝑘!
 1 2 1 4 (−1)𝑘 2𝑘
∴ cos 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑥 +⋯ ⋯+∞
2! 4! 2𝑘!
Example 4: Find the Maclaurin series of 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙.

Solution: Let,

𝑓(𝑥) = cos 2𝑥 ∴ 𝑓(0) = cos 0 = 1 𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) = −2sin 2𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊ (0) = − 2sin 0 = 0

𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑥) = −22 cos 2𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) = −22 cos 0 = −22 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (𝑥) = 23 sin 2𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (0) = 23 sin 0 = 0
⋮
⋮
𝑓 2𝑘 (𝑥) = (−1)k 22k cos 2𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 2𝑘 (𝑥) = (−1)k 22k 𝑓 2𝑘+1 (𝑥) = (−1)k 22k sin 2𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 2𝑘+1 (0) = 0

And so on.

Now, By Maclaurin’s Theorem,

𝑓 ˊ (0) 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) 2 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (0) 3 𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯ ⋯+∞
1! 2! 3! 𝑛!

0 (−1) 2 2 0 3 1 4 4 (−1)𝑘 2k 2𝑘
∴ cos 2𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥+ 2 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯+ 2 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯+ ∞
1! 2! 3! 4! 2𝑘!

1 2 2 1 4 4 (−1)𝑘 2𝑘
∴ cos 2𝑥 = 1 − 2 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯+ 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯+ ∞
2! 4! 2𝑘!

Example 5: Find the Maclaurin series of 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙.

Solution: Try yourself.

𝑥3 𝑥5 (−1)𝑘
Answer: 𝑥 sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 (𝑥 − + − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + (2𝑘+1)! 𝑥 2𝑘+1 + ⋯ ⋯ + ∞)
3! 5!

2
𝑥4 𝑥6 (−1)𝑘 2𝑘+2
= 𝑥 − + − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯+ 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯+ ∞
3! 5! (2𝑘 + 1)!
Example 6: Find the Maclaurin series of 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 (𝟏 + 𝒙).

Solution: Let,

𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 (1 + 𝑥) 𝑓(0) = log 𝑒 1 = 0

1
𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ˊ (0) = 1
1+𝑥
−1
𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) = −1
(1 + 𝑥)2
(−1)(−2)
𝑓 ˊˊˊ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (0) = (−1)(−2)
(1 + 𝑥)3
(−1)(−2)(−3)
𝑓 ı𝜈 = 𝑓 ı𝜈 = (−1)(−2)(−3)
(1 + 𝑥)4
⋮
⋮

(−1)𝑛−1 . (𝑛 − 1)! 𝑓 𝑛 (0) = (−1)𝑛−1 . (𝑛 − 1)!

𝑓𝑛 =
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛
So the Meclaurin series for the 𝑓(𝑥) is,

𝑓 ˊ (0) 2 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) 3 𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ˊ (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯⋯+ 𝑥 + ⋯ +∝
2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 (1 + 𝑥)
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥𝑛
= 0 + 𝑥. 1 + (−1) + (2!) + {−(3!)} + ⋯ ⋯ + (−1)𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1)!
2! 3! 4! 𝑛!
+ ⋯ ⋯ +∝

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑛−1
𝑥𝑛
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 (1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − + ⋯ ⋯ + (−1) + ⋯ ⋯ +∝
2 3 4 𝑛
Example 7: Find the Maclaurin series of (𝟏 + 𝒙)𝒏 .

Solution: Let,

∴ 𝑓(0) = 1
𝑓(𝑥) = (1 + 𝑥)𝑛
𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) = 𝑛(1 + 𝑥)𝑛−1 ∴ 𝑓 ˊ (0) = 𝑛

𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑥) = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(1 + 𝑥)𝑛−2 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)

And so on.

So the Meclaurin series for the 𝑓(𝑥) is,

ˊ (0)𝑥
𝑓 ˊ (0) 2 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) 3 𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯⋯+ 𝑥 + ⋯ +∝
2! 3! 𝑛!
 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2
𝑓(𝑥) = (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯ +∝
2!

Example 8: Find the Maclaurin series of 𝒆𝒎𝒙 .

Solution: Let,

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ∴ 𝑓(0) = 1
𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) = 𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊ (0) = 𝑚
𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑥) = 𝑚2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) = 𝑚2
𝑓 ˊˊˊ (𝑥) = 𝑚3 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊˊ (0) = 𝑚3
⋮ ⋮
⋮ ⋮
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑚𝑛 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑚𝑛

So the Meclaurin series for the 𝑓(𝑥) is,

𝑓 ˊ (0) 2 𝑓 ˊˊ (0) 3 𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ˊ (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯⋯+ 𝑥 + ⋯ +∝
2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 + ⋯ ⋯ +∝
2! 3! 𝑛!
 Tangent and Normal

 Equation of tangent of a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ).

1
 Equation of normal of a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = − 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ).
𝑑𝑦
Where 𝑚 = [𝑑𝑥 ]
(𝑥1 ,𝑦1 )

Example 1: Find the equation of tangent and normal to the curve:

𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 2 = 0 at the point (1, −1).

Solution: Given that, 𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 2 = 0

Differentiating with respect to 𝑥, we get,

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 4 + 5 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒ (2𝑥𝑦 + 5) = −3𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 4
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 −3𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 4
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥𝑦 + 5
𝑑𝑦 −3−1+6−4 −2
Now, 𝑚 = [𝑑𝑥 ] = =
(𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) −2+5 3

∴ The equation of the tangent at (1, −1) is:

−2
𝑦+1= (𝑥 − 1)
3
⇒ 3𝑦 + 3 = −2𝑥 + 2

∴ 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 1 = 0

∴ The equation of the normal at (1, −1) is:

3
𝑦 + 1 = (𝑥 − 1)
2
⇒ 2𝑦 + 2 = 3𝑥 − 3

∴ 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 5 = 0
Example 2: Find the equation of tangent and normal to the curve:

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4 at the point (2, 4).

Example 3: Find the equation of tangent and normal to the curve:

−1
4𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 = 4 at the point (√2, ).
√2

Example 4: Find the equation of tangent and normal to the curve:

1 −1
𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 2 = 0 at the point ( , ).
√2 √2

Maxima and Minima

For finding maxima and minima of a function 𝑓(𝑥):

i. Find 𝑓 ˊ (𝑥).
ii. From 𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) = 0, find the value of 𝑥 are 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , ⋯ ⋯
iii. Put 𝑥 = 𝑐1 at 𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑥). If 𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑐1 ) < 0 then for 𝑥 = 𝑐1 the function is maxima.
And if 𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑐1 ) > 0 then for 𝑥 = 𝑐1 the function is minima.

Example 1: Find the maxima and minima of the function 𝐟(𝐱) = 𝟐𝐱 𝟑 − 𝟐𝟏𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟑𝟔𝐱 − 𝟐𝟎.

Solution: Given that,

𝐟(𝐱) = 𝟐𝐱 𝟑 − 𝟐𝟏𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟑𝟔𝐱 − 𝟐𝟎

∴ 𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 36

For maxima and minima,

𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) = 0

⇒ 6𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 36 = 0

⟹ 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 = 0

⟹ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 𝑥 + 6 = 0

⟹ 𝑥(𝑥 − 6) − 1(𝑥 − 6) = 0

⟹ (𝑥 − 6)(𝑥 − 1) = 0

∴ 𝑥 = 6, 1.
 ∴ 𝑓 ˊˊ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 − 42

⟹ 𝑓 ˊˊ (1) = 12 − 42 = −30 < 0

Therefore, the function has a maxima at 𝑥 = 1.

∴ The maxima is 𝑓(1) = 2 − 21 + 36 − 20 = −3.

Again, 𝑓 ˊˊ (6) = 12.6 − 42 = 30 > 0

Therefore, the function has a minima at 𝑥 = 6.

∴ The minima is 𝑓(6) = 2. 63 − 21. 62 + 36.6 − 20 = −128

Example 2: Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3 has no maxima or minima.

Solution: Given that,

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3

∴ 𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6

= 3(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2)

= 3(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 1)

= 3(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) + 3

= 3(𝑥 − 1)2 + 3

The value of 𝑓 ˊ (𝑥) never can be zero. Therefore the function has no maxima or minima.

Exercise 1: Find the maxima and minima of the function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 45𝑥 + 13.
1
Exercise 2: Show that the maxima is less than the minima of the function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 .