Chapter 4 Section 1
How Latitude and Longitude Are Used to Map Earth
● Purpose:
○ Provides a grid system to uniquely identify locations on Earth’s surface (e.g.,
cities, landmarks).
● Latitude:
○ Definition: Degrees of arc north or south of the equator (0° at equator, 90° at
poles).
○ Measurement: Along a meridian, from 0° to 90° N (e.g., Washington, DC:
38.921° N) or S (e.g., South Pole: 90° S).
○ Basis: Earth’s axis defines poles; equator is halfway between.
● Longitude:
○ Definition: Degrees of arc east or west of the Prime Meridian (0° at
Greenwich, England, to 180°).
○ Measurement: Along the equator, from 0° to 180° E or W (e.g., Washington,
DC: 77.066° W).
○ Prime Meridian: Set at Greenwich by international agreement (historical
maritime significance).
● System:
○ Uses great circles: equator (latitude baseline) and meridians (longitude lines
through poles, perpendicular to equator).
○ Directions (N, S, E, W) well-defined everywhere except at poles (where E/W
are ambiguous).
How Right Ascension and Declination Are Used to Map the Sky
● Purpose:
○ Celestial coordinate system to locate stars, galaxies, etc., on the celestial
sphere (a fictitious sky dome).
● Declination (Dec):
○ Definition: Degrees north (+) or south (-) of the celestial equator (0° to ±90°).
○ Measurement: Analogous to latitude; e.g., Polaris ≈ +90° (near north celestial
pole).
○ Basis: Celestial equator aligns with Earth’s equator; poles project from Earth’s
axis.
● Right Ascension (RA):
○ Definition: Angular distance east from the vernal equinox (0° or 0h to 360° or
24h).
○ Measurement: In degrees (e.g., 15° = 1 hour) or time (24h = full circle); e.g.,
Capella: RA 5h (75°), Dec +50°.
○ Vernal Equinox: Where Sun’s path (ecliptic) crosses celestial equator;
arbitrary 0° like Greenwich.
● System:
○ Uses celestial poles and equator; RA meridians (hour circles) run pole-to-pole.
○ Tracks apparent sky rotation (1h RA = 15° = 1 hour of Earth’s turn).
Additional Notes
● Earth’s Rotation:
○ Foucault’s Pendulum (1851) proved Earth turns: pendulum’s plane shifts as
Earth rotates beneath it (Fig. 4.4).
○ Sky’s apparent motion (stars rise/set) reflects Earth’s spin, not sky turning.
● Visualization:
○ Earth’s grid projects onto celestial sphere (e.g., equator → celestial equator,
meridians → RA lines).
● Context:
○ Latitude/longitude and RA/Dec mirror each other, adapting flat grid concepts to
spheres for mapping Earth and sky.
These notes cover the essentials for your learning objectives, ready for study! Let me
know if you need more detail or clarification.
Chapter 4 Section 2
How the Tilt of Earth’s Axis Causes the Seasons
● Cause:
○ Earth’s axis is tilted 23.5° relative to its orbit (ecliptic), not distance from the
Sun (varies only 3%, insufficient for seasons).
● Mechanism:
○ Tilt causes hemispheres to “lean” toward or away from the Sun during orbit
(Fig. 4.5):
◆ June (Summer Solstice): Northern Hemisphere tilts toward Sun; more
direct rays, longer days.
◆ December (Winter Solstice): Southern Hemisphere tilts toward Sun;
Northern leans away, less direct rays, shorter days.
◆ March/September (Equinoxes): Axis sideways; equal sunlight for both
hemispheres.
● Effects:
○ Directness of Rays: Summer rays hit more directly (less spread, Fig. 4.6a),
heating more effectively than winter’s angled rays (more spread, Fig. 4.6b).
○ Day Length: Summer Sun higher, above horizon longer (e.g., 15h in U.S. June
vs. 9h December, Fig. 4.7).
● Key Dates:
○ Summer Solstice (~June 21): Sun at 23° N (Tropic of Cancer); max daylight
north, 24h at Arctic Circle (67° N).
○ Winter Solstice (~Dec 21): Sun at 23° S (Tropic of Capricorn); max daylight
south, 24h at Antarctic Circle (67° S).
○ Equinoxes (~Mar 21, Sep 21): Sun on celestial equator; ~12h day/night
globally.
How Seasonal Differences on Earth Vary with Latitude
● Equator (0°):
○ Minimal variation; Sun always near zenith, ~12h daylight year-round.
○ Seasons defined by rain (wet/dry), not sunlight.
● Midlatitudes (e.g., U.S., 30°–50° N/S):
○ Pronounced seasons:
◆ Summer: High Sun (e.g., 67° altitude at equator June 21), long days (15h),
warm.
◆ Winter: Low Sun (e.g., 44° at Tropic of Cancer Dec 21), short days (9–
10h), cold.
○ Greater tilt effect as latitude increases (more daylight variation).
● Tropics (23° N to 23° S):
○ Moderate variation; Sun overhead at solstices (e.g., Tropic of Cancer June 21,
Capricorn Dec 21).
○ Still significant daylight/heat changes, but less extreme than midlatitudes.
● Polar Regions (above 67° N/S):
○ Extreme seasons:
◆ Arctic Circle (67° N): 6 months light (Mar 21–Sep 21), 6 months dark (Sep
21–Mar 21).
◆ Antarctic Circle (67° S): Opposite (light Sep 21–Mar 21, dark Mar 21–Sep
21).
◆ Poles: 6-month day/night cycles due to Sun’s north/south celestial equator
shift.
● Tilt Impact:
○ Greater latitude amplifies seasonal extremes (day length, Sun angle); less tilt
(e.g., 5°) reduces variation (Tropic at 5° N, Arctic at 85° N, milder seasons).
Additional Notes
● Atmospheric Effects:
○ Refraction extends sunrise/sunset; twilight adds light when Sun is below
horizon (e.g., poles see Sun before equinox).
○ Weather lags: Warmest months (July/Aug) after solstice due to heat absorption
by air/water.
● Cultural Ties:
○ Solstice celebrations (e.g., Stonehenge, winter holidays) track Sun’s cycle.
● Visuals:
○ Figs. 4.5–4.9 show tilt, ray angles, Sun paths, and solstice extremes.
Chapter 4 Section 3
Difference Between the Solar Day and the Sidereal Day
● Solar Day:
○ Definition: Time for Earth to rotate once relative to the Sun (observer sees Sun
at zenith again).
○ Length: ~24 hours (mean solar day).
○ Basis: Earth’s rotation + orbital motion around Sun (Fig. 4.10); requires extra
~4 minutes (1/365 of a turn) beyond a full rotation to realign with Sun.
● Sidereal Day:
○ Definition: Time for Earth to rotate once relative to distant stars (e.g., same
○
star at zenith).
○ Length: 23 hours, 56 minutes (~4 minutes shorter than solar day).
○ Basis: Pure rotation without orbital adjustment; stars rise 4 minutes earlier
daily.
● Difference:
○ Solar day longer due to Earth’s ~1° daily orbit shift; sidereal day tracks true
rotation.
○ Impact: Stars shift ~2 hours earlier per month (e.g., Sirius from 7:00 p.m. to
1:00 p.m. in 3 months).
Mean Solar Time and the Reason for Time Zones
● Mean Solar Time:
○ Definition: Average solar day length (24 hours), smoothing out variations in
apparent solar time.
○ Apparent Solar Time: Time by Sun’s actual position (e.g., sundials); varies
slightly due to Earth’s elliptical orbit and tilt.
○ Why Mean Solar Time: Mechanical clocks need uniform rate; apparent solar
day inconsistent (e.g., noon varies by longitude).
● Time Zones:
○ Reason: Local mean solar time shifts with longitude (~1 hour per 15°); travel
made constant watch resets impractical.
○ Development:
◆ Pre-1883: Each U.S. town had local time (e.g., Oyster Bay vs. NYC, 1.6-
minute difference).
◆ 1883: U.S. adopted 4 zones (now 6); standardized globally by 1900 into 24
zones.
○ System: Each zone uses one mean solar time (central meridian); changes by
full hours at boundaries (e.g., Pacific 3 hours behind Eastern).
● Variations:
○ India: +5.5 hours (half-zone); China: single zone (Beijing time everywhere).
○ Daylight Saving Time: Adds 1 hour to standard time in spring/summer; doesn’t
change daylight amount, just shifts schedules.
● International Date Line:
○ Purpose: Adjusts date at 180° longitude (Pacific) to avoid 24-hour gain/loss
from east/west travel.
○ Rule: West to east: subtract a day; east to west: add a day (e.g., Pearl Harbor:
Dec 7 U.S., Dec 8 Japan).
Additional Notes
● Historical Context:
○ Solar time dominated until clocks; sidereal time aids astronomers (consistent
star timing).
● Practicality:
○ Time zones simplify travel/communication; IDL keeps global dates rational.
● Visuals:
○ Fig. 4.10: Solar vs. sidereal day difference.
○ Fig. 4.11: IDL path in Pacific.
Chapter 4 Section 4
How Calendars Varied Among Different Cultures
● Purpose of Calendars:
○ Track time over long spans (seasons, anniversaries) using natural units: day
(Earth’s rotation), month (Moon’s phases, ~29.53 days), year (Earth’s
revolution, ~365.2422 days).
○ Challenge: These periods don’t divide evenly (incommensurable).
● Early Calendars:
○ Stonehenge (Bronze Age, 2800–1500 BCE):
◆ British monument with stones aligned to solstices; tracked Sun/Moon for
seasonal rituals (Fig. 4.12).
○ Maya (Central America, ~1000 CE):
◆ Complex system for counting days, not tied to exact year/month lengths;
predicted events like Venus’ position (Fig. 4.13).
○ Chinese:
◆ Sophisticated lunar-solar calendar; included Jupiter’s ~12-year cycle (e.g.,
Year of the Dragon); used by court astronomer-astrologers.
○ Sumerians/Egyptians/Greeks (2nd–8th century BCE):
◆ Early solar-based systems; evolved into Roman Julian calendar (~365.25
days).
○ Islamic:
◆ Primarily lunar (~29.53-day months), not aligned with solar year; still in
use.
● Variations:
○ Cultures prioritized different cycles (solar vs. lunar vs. planetary); some (e.g.,
Maya) focused on timekeeping over precision, others (e.g., Julian)
approximated solar year.
Origins of Our Modern Calendar
● Julian Calendar (46 BCE):
○ Introduced by: Julius Caesar, based on Egyptian/Greek systems.
○ Structure: 365-day year; every 4th year (leap year) 366 days; average 365.25
days.
○ Shift: Abandoned lunar months (though ~30-day months retained as vestige);
focused on solar year.
○ Issue: Overestimated year by 11 minutes (365.2422 actual), accumulating error
over centuries.
● Gregorian Calendar (1582):
○ Introduced by: Pope Gregory XIII to fix Julian drift (vernal equinox shifted to
March 11 from March 21).
○ Reforms:
◆ Step 1: Dropped 10 days (Oct 4 → Oct 15, 1582) to realign equinox.
◆ Step 2: Adjusted leap year rule: century years (e.g., 1700) not divisible by
400 are common years (not leap years); average year now 365.2425 days
◆
(error: 1 day in 3300 years).
○
Adoption:
◆ Immediate in Catholic countries; delayed elsewhere (England/America:
1752, dropped 12 days; Russia: 1918, dropped 13 days).
◆ Riots in England over “lost days”; Russia’s October Revolution (1917)
shifted to November on Gregorian.
● Outcome:
○ Modern Western calendar; aligns closely with tropical year (365.2422 days);
standard globally with minor local tweaks.
Additional Notes
● Cultural Context:
○ Calendars reflected priorities (e.g., Maya astronomy, Chinese astrology,
Christian holidays).
● Natural Cycles:
○ Day (solar), month (lunar), year (solar) drove designs; incommensurability
forced compromises.
● Visuals:
○ Stonehenge (Fig. 4.12) and El Caracol (Fig. 4.13) highlight ancient timekeeping
tools.
Chapter 4 Section 5
Cause of the Lunar Phases
● Overview:
○ Moon’s phases result from its orbit around Earth, changing how much of its
sunlit side we see (not Earth’s shadow).
● Mechanism:
○ Moon reflects sunlight; half is always lit, but the angle between Sun, Moon, and
Earth determines visible illumination (Fig. 4.14).
● Cycle (29.5 days):
○ New Moon (A): Moon between Earth and Sun; dark side faces us (invisible);
rises/sets with Sun.
○ Waxing Crescent (B): Thin lit edge visible; Moon moves east, rises later daily.
○ First Quarter (C): Half lit (90° from Sun); rises noon, sets midnight.
○ Waxing Gibbous (D): More than half lit, growing toward full.
○ Full Moon (E): Opposite Sun; fully lit side faces Earth; rises at sunset, sets at
sunrise.
○ Waning Gibbous (F): Shrinking from full; still more than half lit.
○ Third Quarter (G): Half lit again (270° around); rises midnight, sets noon.
○ Waning Crescent (H): Thin lit edge, fading to new.
● Motion:
○ Moon orbits ~12°/day eastward (360° in ~30 days); delays rise time ~50 min/
day.
● Misconceptions:
○ Not Earth’s shadow (shadow causes eclipses, rare); full moon visible due to
○
orbit tilt and distance (30 Earth-diameters).
How the Moon Rotates and Revolves Around Earth
● Revolution:
○ Sidereal Month: 27.3217 days (one orbit relative to stars).
○ Solar Month: 29.5306 days (phase cycle, full to full); longer due to Earth’s orbit
around Sun requiring extra Moon travel.
○ Motion: Moves ~12°/day east; shifts ~1 hour across sky per night.
● Rotation:
○ Synchronous Rotation: Rotates once per revolution (27.3217 days); same
side always faces Earth (Fig. 4.15b).
○ Evidence: If no rotation, all sides would face Earth over orbit (Fig. 4.15a);
instead, fixed face due to equal periods.
● Implications:
○ Phases from changing sunlight angle, not rotation.
○ “Back side” not always dark; Sun lights all sides over a month (misnamed “dark
side” is just unseen).
Additional Notes
● Cultural Ties:
○ Phases inspired myths; week’s 7 days from “wanderers” (Sun, Moon, 5
planets).
● Observation Tips:
○ Track Moon’s shape, direction, rise/set times over a month to see cycle.
● Visuals:
○ Fig. 4.14: Phase progression.
○ Fig. 4.15: Rotation vs. no-rotation contrast.
Chapter 4 Section 6
### Learning Objectives
- Describe the causes of tides on Earth.
- Explain the changing amplitude of tides throughout the month.
---
### Introduction to Tides
- Tides are the rising and falling of sea levels, occurring twice a day.
- Historical observations linked tides to the Moon, as high tide timing correlates with the
Moon's position.
- Newton's theory of gravity provides a framework for understanding the mechanics of
tides.
---
### The Pull of the Moon on Earth
- **Gravitational Forces**: The Moon exerts varying gravitational forces on different
parts of Earth, leading to tidal distortions.
- **Differential Forces**: The side of Earth closest to the Moon experiences a stronger
attraction than the center, and the center feels stronger attraction than the far side.
- **Deformation**: Earth deforms slightly (up to about 20 cm), which affects water
movement but not solid objects.
---
### Formation of Tides
- **Tidal Bulges**: Water flows toward the sides of Earth facing and opposite the Moon,
creating tidal bulges.
- Water on the near side flows toward the Moon, while water on the far side forms
another bulge due to the slight difference in gravitational pull.
- **High and Low Tides**: As Earth rotates, regions move in and out of these bulges,
resulting in two high and two low tides each day.
### Effects of the Sun on Tides
- The Sun also influences tides, albeit less effectively than the Moon (about half as
effective).
- **Spring Tides**: Occur during full and new moons when the Sun and Moon are
aligned, causing higher-than-normal tides.
- **Neap Tides**: Occur during the first and third quarters of the Moon's phases, with
Sun and Moon pulling at right angles, leading to lower-than-normal tides.
---
### Complications in Tide Dynamics
- **Land Masses**: Presence of continents disrupts water flow, leading to varying tidal
heights.
- **Ocean Depth**: Variable ocean depths also affect tidal characteristics.
- **Friction**: Friction between ocean waters and the ocean floor, as well as other forces
(such as wind), complicate the simple model of tides.
- **Location-Specific Tides**: Tide tables must account for local conditions, as tide
patterns differ globally.
---
### Long-Term Effects on Earth’s Rotation
- **George Darwin's Research**: Investigated the long-term evolution of Earth's rotation
and its angular momentum.
- **Slowing of Earth's Rotation**: The friction from tidal movements gradually slows
Earth’s rotation (about 0.002 seconds longer per century).
- **Moon’s Movement**: The Moon is spiraling outward at a rate of 3.8 cm per year; this
affects both monthly cycles and the potential for visible total solar eclipses in the future.
---
### Conclusion
- The dynamics of tides involve complex gravitational interactions, primarily between the
Earth, Moon, and Sun.
- Long-term changes in Earth's rotation and the Moon’s orbit influence both natural
phenomena and future astronomical events.
Chapter 4 Section 7
### Learning Objectives
- Describe the causes of lunar and solar eclipses.
- Differentiate between a total solar eclipse and a partial solar eclipse.
- Explain why lunar eclipses are more common than solar eclipses.
---
### Overview of Eclipses
- **Coincidental Sizes**: The apparent size of the Sun and Moon in the sky is nearly
the same (about 1/2°), allowing the Moon to cover the Sun during solar eclipses.
- **Eclipse Definition**: An eclipse occurs when one celestial body enters the
shadow of another.
- **Solar Eclipse**: Moon moves between Earth and Sun, partially or completely
covering the Sun.
- **Lunar Eclipse**: Moon enters Earth's shadow, darkening its surface.
---
### The Shadow's Structure
- Earth and Moon shadows consist of:
- **Umbra**: Darkest part of the shadow.
- **Penumbra**: Lighter, diffuse outer shadow region.
---
### Eclipses of the Sun
- **Geometry**: Solar eclipses occur when the Moon's umbra reaches Earth.
- **Types of Solar Eclipses**:
- **Total Solar Eclipse**: Occurs when the Moon completely covers the Sun,
visible from a small area on Earth.
- **Partial Solar Eclipse**: Occurs when only part of the Sun is obscured by the
Moon, seen from a larger area.
- **Annular Solar Eclipse**: Occurs when the Moon is farther from Earth, creating
a ring of light around the Moon.
#### Visibility Factors
- Eclipses are possible only during "eclipse seasons" when the Sun, Moon, and
Earth align. This happens twice a year due to the Moon’s orbit being tilted about 5°
relative to the ecliptic.
#### Eclipse Path
- The path of totality is a narrow zone where a total solar eclipse can be seen. It's
about 30 kilometers wide, with the eclipse path moving at approximately 1500 km/h.
- The duration of totality can never exceed about 7 minutes. Observers outside this
path see partial eclipses.
#### Viewing a Total Solar Eclipse
- **Totality**: The sky darkens; stars and planets become visible; the Sun’s corona
is revealed.
- **Safety**: It’s safe to view the total eclipse directly, but eclipse glasses or other
safe methods must be used during partial phases.
---
### Eclipses of the Moon
- **Geometry**: A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes through Earth’s
shadow.
- **Visibility**: Lunar eclipses can be seen by anyone on the night side of Earth,
making them more common than solar eclipses.
- **Phases**:
- **Total Lunar Eclipse**: Moon completely enters Earth's umbra.
- **Partial Lunar Eclipse**: Moon only partially enters the umbra.
#### Characteristics of Lunar Eclipses
- **Color Change**: The Moon appears reddish during totality due to sunlight
bending through Earth's atmosphere (Rayleigh scattering).
- **Duration**: Lunar eclipses can last several hours, with totality lasting up to 1
hour and 40 minutes.
---
### Summary of Eclipses
- **Solar Eclipses**:
- More localized visibility; dramatic events.
- Total, partial, and annular varieties based on shadow alignment.
- **Lunar Eclipses**:
- More universally visible; safer to observe.
- Typically, a total lunar eclipse occurs every 2-3 years.
### Observing Eclipses Safely
- **Solar Eclipse**: Never look directly at the Sun without proper protection. Use
pinhole projectors or eclipse glasses for safe viewing.
- **Lunar Eclipse**: Safe to view directly, no special equipment required.
---
### Conclusion
Understanding eclipses enhances appreciation for celestial mechanics and the
interdependencies of the Sun, Moon, and Earth. Eclipses, once feared, are now
celebrated astronomical events.
