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1.0 Evaluation of the Behavioral School

Contributors to the behavioral school advanced our understanding of management by emphasizing the importance of the individual within the organizationan element essentially ignored by writers of the classical school. That is, social needs of individuals, group processes, and subordinate-superior relationships were all identified as integral components in the practice of management. No longer could managers confine their attention to technical skills. Rather, they had to use people skills as well and develop an understanding of the relationship between the technical and human sides of management. However, the behavioral school did not completely resolve issues concerning the nature of human motivation. Later studies were to dispute the belief that worker satisfaction was the prime cause of productivity. Under certain conditions, satisfaction was found to play an inconsequential role. In addition, though money may not be the primary motivator, salaries do at times affect worker productivity, particularly in industries where salaries are low, causing high rates of absenteeism and turnover. Much like classical theory, behavioral theory also assumed that the external environment of the organization was static. Thus, the psychological and social dimensions of the individual only partially explain organizational outcomes and constitute only a part of the larger and more complex managerial picture. http://en.articlesgratuits.com/behavioral-management-theory-id1593.php Behavioral Viewpoint: Organizational behavior (OB) research has contributed much of what we know about behavioral views of management, human resources management, motivation, leadership, trust, teamwork, and conflict management. Four people stand out as early advocates of the OB approach. These include Robert Owen, Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester Barnard. Among them Mary Parker Follett was a social philosopher who thought the managers job was to harmonize and coordinate group efforts.

2.0 Mary Parker Follett

Follett was born in 1868 into an affluent Quaker family in Quincy, Massachusetts. She was educated at the Thayer Academy but had to take on a significant role within the family in her teens when her father died (her mother was disabled). In 1892 she entered Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women in Cambridge, Massachusetts (later Radcliffe College) where she graduated in 1898 in economics, government, law and philosophy. While at Radcliffe she spent a year at Newham College, Cambridge. Her research thesis at Radcliffe was published in 1896 as The Speaker of the House of Representatives (and quickly became a standard work) Her
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successful work on committees set up to work out solutions to community problems led eventually to a concentration on the study of industrial management, with a particular interest in techniques for resolving conflicts in organizations. She brought to management the perspectives of political science and social work. Marry Parker Follett identified several key issues and theories which contributing in developing management technique and practice in todays modern management arena. The major findings from Folletts writings and experiments are outlined below-

2.1. The major findings/ Management Contribution

1. The importance of the functioning of groups, not just individuals, in organization. She identified - Groupthink Effect in decision making. - Creativity exercises such as brainstorming and most importantly, - MBO (Management by Objectives); which we know is mutual goal setting. - TQM/CQI (Total Quality Management, Continuous Quality Improvement); An Integrated effort designed to improve quality performance at every level of the organization. 2. Need of the nurturing the integrity of the individual. She argued for a technique of human relations based upon the integrity of the individual which is clear indicative to behavioral management prospect. 3. Follett advocated for the principle of power with rather than Power over in management employee relations. She was an advocate of honor and civility in the workplace as well as the idea that - power and authority derives from function, not the privilege of office. Such ideas and her strong belief in grassroots empowerment were quite revolutionary at the time. 4. She strongly believes in the inherent problem solving ability of people working in groups which is one assumption of theory Y by Douglas McGregor. 5. Follett asserts power should be cooperatively shared for the purpose of resolving conflict rather than assuming classical management's strongly hierarchical position of power in organizations. She argued for somewhat decentralization of power and less bureaucracy in organization. 6. She is best known for her integration method of conflict resolution as opposed to the three choices she sites of domination, compromise or voluntary submission by one side over another. She advocated for creative conflict resolution involves cooperatively working with others to devise inventive new ideas often providing strong interpersonal benefits. She hypothesized that managers could resolve conflict in one of four ways:

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(i) One side giving in, (iii) Compromise

(ii) One side forcing the other to submit, (iv) integration.

7. The organization will operate as a functional whole, with the various interrelated parts working together effectively to achieve organizational goals. It means total organization will try for goal attainment. 8. Consider the Limitation of "Facts." and to overcome those limitations organization needs accurate information, 9. According to Follett Remember that life is fluid she has tried to say situation or the environment is constantly changing, and continuously interactive. We need to behaving in a certain way to response to the new situation. 10. She identified the continuously developing organization in her book Creative Experience. She focused on learning, exploration and team can be seen as a key predecessor of more recent interest in learning organizations. 11. According to Follett Experience is the power-house where purposes and will, thought and ideals, are being generated. Today, Mary Parker Follett is better known for her pioneering work on management - although her contribution was soon forgotten after her death in 1933 (especially in the USA). She looked to approach organizations as group networks rather than as hierarchical structures, and attended to the influence of human relations within the group.

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3.0. The Hawthorne Studies

Another prominent pioneer of the behavioral school was Elton Mayo (1880 1949), an Australian psychologist who joined the Harvard Business School faculty in 1926. Convinced that economic incentives only partially explained individual motivation and satisfaction,' Mayo worked with Fritz Roethlisberger, William Dickson, and others to formulate theories concerning the factors that increased human motivation and satisfaction which were later to become the foundations of the human relations movement in management. Their ideas did not have wide circulation, however, until they were asked to assist in a research project that had apparently failed. Hawthorne Studies, a series of studies were conducted at the Western Electric Company from 1924 and continued through the early 1930s, In 1924, a research team launched an experiment at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in Cicero, Illinois. Their experiment was designed to identify factors other than fatigue that would diminish worker productivity. Initially, it was believed that physical surroundings (e.g., noise, light, humidity) would have an impact on productivity. Testing was conducted by selecting two groups of women who would perform an assembly operation, with each group in a separate room. One group was to be the control group, working in a room where no change in the physical surroundings would be made. The second group would perform their tasks under changing physical conditions. As various features of the physical surroundings were altered in the second room, the researchers would record the level of output and compare it with the output of the control group. One such alteration of the physical surroundings was the level of lighting. Illumination was increased in stages, and the researchers recorded an increase in output as well. To further test their hypothesis, the light was dimmed. Much to their surprise, output by the women increased again. Even when the light level was reduced to the point where it resembled moonlight, output increased. What made this finding even more difficult to interpret was that the control group was also increasing its output without any alteration in the physical surroundings. Increased output was also obtained when the researchers expanded the length of the workday and eliminated rest periods. Indeed, many of the women reported that they were more satisfied with their jobs than before the experiments began. In 1927, Mayo and his team were called in to assist in the interpretation of the results and to conduct further experiments as needed. One such experiment was to alter supervisory authority so that the women could determine on their own when they would take a rest break. Another was to increase the salary of the women in the experimental group while the women in the control group would keep the same pay. Again, productivity went up in both groups. After several years of intensive study, Mayo and his colleagues began to piece together what was happening. They concluded that financial incentives did not influence productivity since output went up in both groups though only the experimental group received more pay. Instead, they learned through interviews and observation that an "emotional chain reaction" was causing the increase in productivity?" Having been singled out to be participants in the experiment, the women developed a group pride that motivated them to increase their performance. No
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longer did they feel that they were isolated individuals in the plant; now they felt they were part of an important group. The support received from their supervisors and the opportunity to make decisions about their job contributed to this motivation.

3.1. The Experiments

The Hawthorne Studies (or experiments) were conducted from 1927 to 1932 at the Western Electric Hawthorne Works in Chicago, where Harvard Business School professor Elton Mayo examined productivity and work conditions. The studies grew out of preliminary experiments at the plant from 1924 to 1927 on the effect of light on productivity. Those experiments showed no clear connection between productivity and the amount of illumination but researchers began to wonder what kind of changes would influence output

Four Parts of Hawthorne Studies / Experiments

Part I - Illumination Experiments (1924-27) In the first set of studies, no correlation was found between changes in lighting conditions and individual work performance. In fact, performance nearly always went up with any change brighter or darkerin illumination. These experiments were performed to find out the effect of different levels of illumination (lighting) on productivity of labor. The brightness of the light was increased and decreased to find out the effect on the productivity of the test group. Surprisingly, the productivity increased even when the level of illumination was decreased. It was concluded that factors other than light were also important. Part II - Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1929) In the second set of studies, the concept of the Hawthorne effect emerged. The Hawthorne effect refers to the possibility that individuals singled out for a study may improve their performance simply because of the added attention they receive from the researchers, rather than because of any specific factors being tested in the study. Under these test two small groups of six female telephone relay assemblers were selected. Each group was kept in separate rooms. From time to time, changes were made in working hours, rest periods, lunch breaks, etc. They were allowed to choose their own rest periods and to give suggestions. Output increased in both the control rooms. It was concluded that social relationship among workers, participation in decision-making, etc. had a greater effect on productivity than working conditions.

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Part III - Mass Interviewing Program (1928-1930) The third set of studies centered on social aspects of the job (and the informal group) have on productivity21,000 employees were interviewed over a period of three years to find out reasons for increased productivity. It was concluded that productivity can be increased if workers are allowed to talk freely about matters that are important to them. Part IV - Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiment (1932) The fourth set of studies centered on group production norms and individual motivation. A group of 14 male workers in the bank wiring room were placed under observation for six months. A worker's pay depended on the performance of the group as a whole. The researchers thought that the efficient workers would put pressure on the less efficient workers to complete the work. However, it was found that the group established its own standards of output, and social pressure was used to achieve the standards of output. The changes and their associated results at a glance are:-

Conditions
Put on piece-work for eight weeks. Two five minute rest pauses, morning and afternoon, were introduced for a period of five weeks. The rest pauses were lengthened to ten minutes each. Six five minute pauses were introduced, and the girls complained that their work rhythm was broken by the frequent pauses. Return to the two rest pauses, the first with a hot meal supplied by the Company free of charge. The girls were dismissed at 4.30 p.m. instead of 5.00 p.m. They were dismissed at 4.00 p.m. Finally, all the improvements were taken away, and the girls went back to the physical conditions of the beginning of the experiment: work on Saturday, 48 hour week, no rest pauses, no piece work and no free meal. This state of affairs lasted for a period of 12 weeks.

Results
Output went up Output went up once more

Output went up sharply. Output fell slightly

Output went up

Output went up Output remained the same Output was the highest ever recorded averaging 3000 relays a week. Where under normal conditions with a forty eight hour week, including Saturdays, and no rest pauses. The girls produced 2,400 relays a week each.

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Conclusions
1. Employees must be considered as part of a group as well as individuals. workers were not so much driven by pay and working conditions as by psychological wants and desires which could be satisfied by belonging to a work group. 2. Status within a group often means more to an employee than pay and favorable working conditions. Recognition by superiors made workers feel that they were making a unique and important contribution to the organization. 3. Giving workers responsibility for decisions concerning the task, whether as individuals or in a group was a stimulus to treat the task as more important 4. Informal groups have a strong effect on behavior.

3.2. What happened during the Hawthorne Experiments?

The group feeling: What happened was that six individuals became a team and the team gave itself wholeheartedly and spontaneously to co-operation in the experiment. The consequence was that they felt themselves to be participating freely and without afterthought and were happy in the knowledge that they were working without coercion from above or limitation from below. Felt less pressure than ever before: They were themselves satisfied at the consequence for they felt that they were working under less pressure than ever before. In fact regular medical checks showed no signs of cumulative fatigue and absence from work declined by 80 per cent. Use of self techniques and intelligence: It was noted too, that each girl had her own technique of putting the component parts of the relay together - sometimes she varied this technique in order to avoid monotony and it was found that the more intelligent the girl, the greater was the number of variations (similar to McClelland's research findings into achievement motivated people.) Sense of responsibility The experimental group had considerable freedom of movement. They were not pushed around or bossed by anyone. Under these conditions they developed an increased sense of responsibility and instead of discipline from higher authority being imposed; it came from within the group itself.

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3.3. The Findings

Among other findings, these conclusions made by Mayo have significantly impacted the way management ran their production plant from then on and, we believe, resulted in the eventual birth of the concept of team building. Elton Mayo discovered a general upward trend in production, completely independent of any of the changes he made. But his findings didn't match with the then current theory of the worker as motivated solely by self-interest. It didn't make sense that productivity would continue to rise gradually when he cut out breaks and returned the women to longer working hours. Relationships between supervisor and workers affected productivity. Mayo discovered that the relationships between workers and their supervisors affected production. The working relationship that the supervisor established with the workers was not a usual on at that time. Women did not have a high social status at the workplace and when the supervisor asked for the feedback from the ladies and listened to their complaints, it gave them a sense of selfworth. Mayo believed that this spurred them on to produce more even when all the privileges were taken away. Workgroup norms significantly affected productivity. If most people produced at a particular level after a change was made, everyone tended to produce at that level, as it was a fair days work (this confirmed similar conclusions made previously by other researches) The workplace has a culture. A workers performance is affected by internal and external social demands. Informal groups within the work plant influence the habits and attitudes of the workers. Being taken care of. Being recognized for their work, feeling secured and a sense of belonging is more important that physical conditions at work. Incidentally, the Hawthorne Works the place where history was made is history now itself. Western Electric closed it in 1983. The Human Relations Movement began with the Hawthorne Experiments.

3.4. Conclusions of Hawthorne Studies / Experiments

The conclusions derived from the Hawthorne Studies were as follows:1. The social and psychological factors are responsible for workers' productivity and job satisfaction. Only good physical working conditions are not enough to increase productivity. 2. The informal relations among workers influence the workers' behavior and performance more than the formal relations in the organization.

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3. Employees will perform better if they are allowed to participate in decision-making affecting their interests. 4. Employees will also work more efficiently, when they believe that the management is interested in their welfare. When employees are treated with respect and dignity, their performance will improve. 5. Financial incentives alone cannot increase the performance. Social and Psychological needs must also be satisfied in order to increase productivity. 6. Good communication between the superiors and subordinates can improve the relations and the productivity of the subordinates. 7. Special attention and freedom to express their views will improve the performance of the workers.

3.5. Criticism of Hawthorne Studies / Experiments

The Hawthorne Experiments are mainly criticized on the following grounds:Lacks Validity: The Hawthorne experiments were conducted under controlled situations. These findings will not work in real setting. The workers under observation knew about the experiments. Therefore, they may have improved their performance only for the experiments. More Importance to Human Aspects: The Hawthorne experiment gives too much importance to human aspects. Human aspects alone cannot improve production. Production also depends on technological and other factors. More Emphasis on Group Decision-making: The Hawthorne experiments placed too much emphasis on group decision-making. In real situation, individual decision-making cannot be totally neglected especially when quick decisions are required and there is no time to consult others. Over Importance to Freedom of Workers: The Hawthorne experiments give a lot of importance to freedom of the workers. It does not give importance to the constructive role of the supervisors. In reality too much of freedom to the workers can lower down their performance or productivity. The Hawthorne experiment was a turning point in the study of management, suggesting that a worker is not simply an extension of the machinery. As the results of the study became known among theorists and practitioners alike, an outpouring of research was conducted based on many theories and discoveries made in psychology. Thus, the Hawthorne study opened the study of management to a whole new arena of ideas from the social sciences that had previously been ignored.

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4.0 Motion Study

Definition
Motion study is the determination of the best way of doing a job based on the careful scrutiny of the work performed within the organization eliminating unnecessary and inefficient processes. Frank Gilbreth (1868-1924) with his engineering background backed by the knowledge of psychology of his wife, Lillian Gilbreth (1878-1972) did path-breaking work in the field Motion study. Gilbreths proposed a technical language, allowing for the analysis of the labor process in a scientific context. The Gilbreths made use of scientific insights, to develop a study method based upon the analysis of work motions. Motion study refers to a group of techniques under the wider group of techniques called method study. While Method study is used for design and improvement of any type of work methods, Motion study concentrates only on work involving manual activities and generally appropriate
only for repetitive tasks.

Motion studyAnalyzing an activity into its smallest possible elements and from the results synthesizing a method of performing the activity that shall be more efficient. --Frank Gilbreth
So we can say Motion study is the method for establishing employee productivity standards in which (1) A complex task is broken into small, simple steps, (2) The sequence of movements taken by the employee in performing those steps is carefully observed to detect and eliminate redundant or wasteful motion, and (3) Precise time taken for each correct movement is measured. From these measurements production and delivery times and prices can be computed and incentive schemes can be devised.

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4.1. Steps of Motion Study

Motion study consists of careful analysis of body motions used in doing a job to assist in eliminating and reducing ineffective or wasteful movement and reduce the total time taken for performing the work. Motion study involves use of a systematic approach involving the following steps:

Understanding the general nature of existing method of performing work. Studying the existing method in detail analyzing and timing in detail each and every motion. This involves use of many alternative techniques such as Simple motion study, Micro motion study, two handed process chart, SIMO, Cycle graph, Chronocyclegraph, and Memo-motion study.

Record the facts. Develop alternative improved methods. Evaluate and compare alternative method. This step leads to identification of the best method.

Define and document the new improved method. Install the new method. Where required this involves provision of standard tools and working environment, it also includes training of the workmen in new methods of working.

Maintain the new method.

4.2. Development of Motion Experiments:

Origin of Motion Engineering Motion engineering grew out of the pioneering developments of the Gilbreths ( Frank B, and his wife, Lillian M.) who developed many of the tools of Motion study as a part of formulation a systematic approach to the analysis of work methods. Frank B. Gilbreth first becomes interested in methods analysis as an outgrowth of his observations of brick-laying. In 1885, Gilbreth started out as an apprentice bricklayer. On his second day of work, with a Master Journeyman to train him, he noticed different methods of bricklaying. Undoubtedly in jest, he was informed there were three techniques: one, for just a regular day, the second was to hurry up to finish a wall, and the third, just to stretch out the job to fill the day. His

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question led him to think there should be one efficient and approved method, "The One Best Way." Motion Study was first developed when it was applied to the worlds oldest trade --- bricklaying. The traditional method, even after 6,000 years, involved unnecessary stooping, walking and reaching. The time-consuming, tiring part of the job had been stooping 125 times per hour for brick and 125 times for mortar. By using Gilbreths method, a man could lay more bricks, standing normally and return home after a full days work not nearly as tired. Application of the Gilbreth system of motion analysis reduced the motions per brick from 18 to 5 and increased the number of bricks laid per hour from 125 to 350. In folding cotton cloth, 20 to 30 motions were reduced to 10 or 12, with the result that instead of 150 dozen pieces of cloth, 400 dozen were folded, with no added fatigue. The motions of a girl putting paper on boxes of shoe polish were studied. Her methods were-changed only slightly, and where she had been doing 24 boxes in 40 seconds, she did 24 in 20 seconds, with less effort. Similar studies have cut down the motions not only of men and women in other trades but also of surgeons, of nurses, of office workers; in fact, of workers in every type of work studied Following Gilbreths outstanding success in bricklaying and construction, he then pursued broad research into diversified manufacturing operations. He created an entirely new technique on how to improve industrial efficiency, while at the same time significantly improving working conditions for the worker. From 1910 to 1924, he promoted his system as a consultant and a teacher. He died in 1924. His wife, Mrs. Lillian M. Gilbreth, educated in psychology and with an insight into the fundamentals of labor management, had been his partner. Mrs. Gilbreth, who had been of great assistance with the running of the Gilbreth Consulting Firm, took over and carried the full load, all by herself. She taught Motion Study at Purdue University, consulted and ran the company, along with being a wonderful mother to 12 children, all college educated. In the late 1940s, James S. Perkins, an Industrial Engineer, on a research assignment for the Western Electric Company, was at the University of Iowa, where he met Mrs. Gilbreth, who was a speaker at the Industrial Engineering Conference there. She visited with him and reviewed his research. Gilbreths film studies, research and conclusions, preserved by James Perkins extend into many diverse areas: 1. Motion and Fatigue Study 3. Plant Layout and Material Handling 5. Production Control 2. Skill Study 4.Inventory Control 6.Business Procedures
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7. Surgical Operations 9. Athletic Training and Skills

8. Safety Methods 10. Military Training

11. Developing Occupations for the Handicapped

4.3. Therbligs
The term Therblig is an anagram of "Gilbreth" and was coined by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth for their system of studying, timing and analyzing the motions of workers. Therbligs are usually aimed at manual tasks and are often used in the field of time and motion studies.

Although Motion study and Therbligs are usually associated with the workplace they can equally be used to optimize other processes, for example in the home. The theory is that by analyzing and optimizing the steps involved in a task time can be saved. In a factory, saved time means higher productivity. In the home saved time on chores means more leisure time. And, of course, let's not forget the boardroom and the golf course.

4.4. What Are Therbligs?

Therbligs represent basic units of motion and activity. The list of Therbligs has evolved over the years. Today it is common to use 18 such elements, however originally the Gilbreths developed a system with 15. Clearly some Therbligs will be more appropriate to certain tasks than others. The whole set of 18 will not always be used.

In today's world of computer software we probably need a new version of Therbligs to represent user interface interaction. I'm sure someone somewhere has produced one.

How to Use Therbligs

To use Therbligs, the activity of workers is first recorded and analyzed. The individual sequences of motions can be broken down into their component Therbligs and timed. The timing is usually performed in milliseconds. Tools such as Simo-chart can be used to record this information and assist in optimization.

The times taken can then be compared to industry norms (there are published tables for these). If workers are routinely taking longer than expected for a particular Therblig then there might be a reason that can be easily fixed, for example by investing in better equipment or rearranging the workspace.

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4.5. Some Forms of Motion Studies

Micro Motion Study
Micro motion study, which was originated by Frank B. Gilbreth, is one of the most exacting forms of work analysis available for job improvement. It is an analysis technique making use of motion pictures (or videotape) taken at a constant and known speed. The film becomes a permanent record of both the method being used and the time consumed in doing the work.

Although Micro motion study formerly made use of motion pictures, very few companies today are using them. As indicated earlier, videotape equipment has been developed so extensively that it has virtually supplanted the use of the motion picture camera. Further it is so cheap and easy to use that it makes the older approach archaic. Micro motion study provides a valuable technique for making minute analyses of those operations that are short in cycle, contain rapid movements, and involve high production over a long period of time. Thus it is very useful in analyzing operations such as the sewing of garments, assembly of small parts and similar activities.

Memo motion Study

Memo Motion study is a special form of Micro-motion study in which motion pictures are taken at slow speed using a motion picture camera. Sixty frames per minute and one hundred frames per minute are most common. Memo motion study has been used frequently to study the flow and handling of materials, new activities and multi-man-and machine relationships and activities of department store clerk. In addition to all the advantages of Micro-motion study, it can be used at relatively low film cost and permit rapid visual review of long sequences of activities. This technique is not usable unless the work is restricted to a general area which can be covered by a motion picture camera. If the person under observation moves from place to place, it could be difficult to use this study.

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Route Model Technique:

Gilbreth developed the route model technique to improve the flow of materials in manufacturing operations. When he first developed it, Gilbreth said that several of his engineering friends, at an engineering meeting, laughed themselves to death, but that it was quickly accepted by Plant Managers. He found that by its use, the layout distance was often cut by 75% and product processing time was reduced substantially. Further, plant productivity was usually increased by 15 to 25%. In 1968, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers decided to honor the achievements of Frank B. Gilbreth, (on his 100th anniversary) at their Annual Meeting at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel. The sound films prepared by Perkins were shown for the first time at the Annual Meeting of the ASME honoring Frank B. Gilbreth.

Cycle graph Technique

Gilbreths cycle graph technique, to learn about skill, was one of his significant contributions. He demonstrates this technique in the film and also shows the three-dimensional model he made from the pictures of a drilling operation. He said, "The expert uses the motion model for learning the existing motion path and the possible lines for improvement. An efficient and skillful motion has smoothness, grace, strong marks of habit, decision, lack of hesitation and is not fatiguing." The film includes motion pictures of a baseball game between the Giants and the Phillies, taken at the Polo Grounds on May 31, 1913. One of the observations Gilbreth made after analyzing these pictures was that after the ball left the pitchers hand, it took about 1-1/2 seconds before it could be relayed to second base by the catcher. The dash to steal second base, with an eight foot lead, required a speed faster than the worlds record for the 100-yard dash. In Gilbreths film studies of surgical operations, he observed that the doctors took more time searching for instruments than in performing the operation itself. He worked with doctors and came up with a technique which is still being used today. When the doctor was ready for a new instrument, he simply extended his hand, palm up, to the nurse and called for the instrument he wanted. By this means, he was able to keep his eyes focused upon the open incision, thereby significantly reducing operating time, so critical to both patient and doctor. The film shows doctors, nurses and technicians prepare a patient and the removal of a large tumor.

4.6. Motion Economy and Work Efficiency

Most workers do not enjoy making unnecessary or wasted motions, particularly if they result in unnecessary fatigue. In addition to providing some social and psychological rewards, a job should be reasonably efficient Motion study helps to reduce fatigue and waste motions.

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Principles of Motion economy The rules of motion economy and efficiency which referred to hand motions of operators were developed by Gilbreths. The principles of motion economy are divided into three groups, namely: (i) Effective use of the operator (ii) Arrangement of the workplace (iii) Tools and equipment. Lists below are twenty-two principles of motion economy as developed by Barnes A. Rules concerning use of human body, 1. The two hands should begin as well as complete their motion at the same time. 2. The two hands should not be idle at the same time except during rest periods. 3. Motions of the arms should be made in opposite and symmetrical direction, and should be made simultaneously. 4. Hand and body motions should be confined to the lowest classification with which it is possible to perform the work satisfactorily. 5. The ascending order of motion classification is: (a) Fingers only (b) Fingers and wrists. (c) Fingers, wrists and lower arms. (d) Fingers, wrists, lower and upper arms. (e) Hands, arms and body. 6. Momentum should be employed to assist the worker wherever possible, and it should be reduced to a minimum if it must be overcome by muscular effort. 7. Smooth, continuous curved motions of the hands are preferable to straight line motions involving sudden and sharp changes in direction. 8. Ballistic movements are faster, easier and more accurate than restricted or controlled movements. 9. Work should be arranged to permit easy and natural rhythm wherever possible. 10. Eye fixation should be as free and as close together as possible.

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B. Rules concerning arrangement of the work place 1. There should be a definite and fixed place for all tools and materials. 2. Tools, materials and controls should be located close to the point of use. 3. Gravity feed bins and containers should be used to deliver material close to the point of use. 4. Drop deliveries should be used wherever possible. 5. Materials and tools should be located to permit the best sequence of motions. 6. Provisions should be made for adequate conditions for seeing. Good illumination is the first requirement for satisfactory visual perception. 7. The height of the work place and the chair should preferably be arranged so that alternate sitting and standing at work are easily possible. 8. A chair of the type and height to permit good posture should be provided for every worker.

C. Rules concerning the design of tools and equipment 1. The hands should be relieved of all work that can be done more advantageously by a jig, a fixture or a foot-operated device. 2. Two or more tools should be combined wherever possible. 3. Tools and materials should be pre-positioned whenever possible. 4. Where each finger performs some specific movement such as in type-writing, the load should be distributed in accordance with the inherent capacities of the fingers. 5. Levers cross bars, and hand wheels, which should be located in such positions that the operator can manipulate them with the least change in body position and with the greatest mechanical advantage. 6. Through the application of the principles of motion economy, it is possible to greatly increase the output of manual labor with a minimum of fatigue.

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4.7. Some Findings derived from motion Studies:

Motion study helps in determination of the best way of doing a job based on the careful scrutiny of the work performed within the organization eliminating unnecessary and inefficient processes. The Motion study gained popularity over the years as it laid down the foundation for standardization in the processes. Which means one best way to perform a particular job. Standardization plays a major role in todays business world with the entities of Pizza Hut, Mcdonalds etc ensure the same quality in products and services anywhere in the world through the strict adherence of the standardization procedures Lillian Gilbreths knowledge in psychology succeeded in gaining the support of the workers and the trade unions in adopting the standardization procedure in the organization. Standardization paved the way for better techniques for evaluating the employee performance, thus leading the way for better employee appraisal systems, promotional programs, and other employee motivational programs. Greater motivation improved efficiency in the work which in turn increased the productivity resulting in better employer-employee relationships. Motion study on identifying the best way of doing the job helped in recognizing the key skills for doing the job effectively. Training and other developmental programs were initiated to enhance the knowledge and skills of the workforce. The employee stress was brought down to a great extent resulting in increased productivity and employee satisfaction. The Micro motion study helped in having fixed positions for the tools based on the natural movements of the workforce, reducing the time required for a job.

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5.0. Time Study

What is it?
Time study is a direct and continuous observation of a task, using a timekeeping device (e.g., decimal minute stopwatch, computer-assisted electronic stopwatch, and videotape camera) to record the time taken to accomplish a task and it is often used when:

there are repetitive work cycles of short to long duration, wide variety of dissimilar work is performed, or Process control elements constitute a part of the cycle.

The Industrial Engineering Terminology Standard defines time study as"A work measurement technique consisting of careful time measurement of the task with a time measuring instrument, adjusted for any observed variance from normal effort or pace and to allow adequate time for such items as foreign elements, unavoidable or machine delays, rest to overcome fatigue, and personal needs." It is a tried and tested method of work measurement for setting basic times and hence standard times for carrying out specified work. Its roots are back to the period between the two World Wars. The aim of time study is to establish a time for a qualified worker to perform specified work under stated conditions and at a defined rate of working. This is achieved by a qualified practitioner observing the work, recording what is done and then timing (using a time measuring device) and simultaneously rating (assessing) the pace of working. The requirements for taking a time study are quite strict.

Conditions:

the practitioner (observer) must be fully qualified to carry out Time Study, the person performing the task must be fully trained and experienced in the work, the work must be clearly defined and the method of doing the work must be effective the working conditions must be clearly defined

There are two main essentials for establishing a basic time for specified work i.e. rating and timing.

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5.1. Direct time study procedure

Following is the procedure developed by Mikell Groover for a direct time study: 1. Define and document the standard method. 2. Divide the task into work elements. Steps 1 and 2 These two steps are primary steps conducted prior to actual timing. They familiarise the analyst with the task and allow the analyst to attempt to improve the work procedure before defining the standard time. 3. Time the work elements to obtain the observed time for the task. 4. Evaluate the workers pace relative to standard performance (performance rating), to determine the normal time. Note that steps 3 and 4 are accomplished simultaneously. During these steps, several different work cycles are timed, and each cycle performance is rated independently. Finally, the values collected at these steps are averaged to get the normalised time. 5. Apply an allowance to the normal time to compute the standard time. The allowance factors that are needed in the work are then added to compute the standard time for the task.

5.2. Some terminology explained

Timing
The observer records the actual time taken to do the element or operation. This usually is in centiminutes (0.01 min.) and is recorded, using a stop-watch or computerized study board.

Rating
When someone is doing work his/her way of working will vary throughout the working period and will be different from others doing the same work. This is due to differing speeds of movement, effort, dexterity and consistency. Thus, the time taken for one person to do the work may not be the same as that for others and may or may not be 'reasonable' anyway. The purpose of rating is to adjust the actual time to a standardized basic time that is appropriate and at a defined level of performance. Rating is on a scale with 100 as its standard rating
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Elements
A complete job usually will be too long and variable to time and rate in one go, so it would be analyzed into several smaller parts (elements) which, separately, will each be timed and rated.

Basic time
This is the standardised time for carrying out an element of work at standard rating. Example: An observer times an element as 30 centiminutes (cm) and because it is performed more slowly than the standard 100, he rates it as 95. Thus the basic time is 95% of 30 or 28.5 basic cm. The formula is: (actual time x rating)/100.

Allowances
Extra time is allowed for various conditions which obtain, the main ones being relaxation allowance for:
A. recovery from the effort of carrying out specified work under specified conditions (fatigue allowance) B. attention to personal needs C. adverse environmental conditions, plus: D. others concerned with machine operations

Frequency
The basic time is the time for a complete cycle to be performed but as not all elements are repeated in every cycle their times per average cycle must be pro rata. In the example which follows, element 2 only occurs once every eight cycles so its basic time is one eighth of the element time, per cycle. Similar treatment for element 7 (one twelfth).

Standard time:
Basic time + allowances

5.3. Findings from Time Study

The systems of time and motion studies are frequently assumed to be interchangeable terms, descriptive of equivalent theories. However, the underlying principles and the rationale for the establishment of each respective method are dissimilar, despite originating within the same school of thought. The application of science to business problems, and the use of time-study methods in standard setting and the planning of work, was pioneered by Frederick Winslow Taylor. Taylor liaised
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with factory managers and from the success of these discussions wrote several papers proposing the use of wage-contingent performance standards based on scientific time study. At its most basic level time studies involved breaking down each job into component parts, timing each part and rearranging the parts into the most efficient method of working. By counting and calculating, Taylor wanted to transform management, which was essentially an oral tradition, into a set of calculated and written techniques. Taylor and his colleagues placed emphasis on the content of a fair days work, and sought to maximize productivity irrespective of the physiological cost to the worker. For example, Taylor thought unproductive time usage (soldering) to be the deliberate attempt of workers to promote their best interests and to keep employers ignorant of how fast work could be carried out. This instrumental view of human behavior by Taylor, prepared the path for human relations to supersede scientific management in terms of literary success and managerial application.

5.4. Criticism of Time study

In response to Taylors time studies and view of human nature, many strong criticisms and reactions were recorded. Disguised tool of management Unions, for example, regarded time study as a disguised tool of management designed to standardize and intensify the pace of production. Employee Initiatives inhibited Similarly, individuals such as Gilbreth (1909), Cadbury and Marshall heavily criticized Taylor and pervaded his work with bias. For example, Cadbury in reply to Thompson stated that under scientific management employee skills and initiatives are passed from the individual to management, a view reiterated by Nyland. Individual interpretation In addition, Taylors critics condemned the lack of scientific substance in his time studies, in the sense that they relied heavily on individual interpretations of what workers actually do.

However, though there are some arguments about Time study, but it is clear that in the contemporary management practice Time study has some significant application. It will be also noted that due to the change of time and situation no theory is totally applicable in a particular situation but use of the theory with some situational adjustment can be done for proper outcome.

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Sources:
THE QUEST, Newsletter of the Gilbreth Network. Vol. 1, No. 2 Summer 1997E QUEST Griffin.W, Ricky. Principles of Management. 8th Edition, New Delhi : Houghton Mifflin 2008.

http://drtomoconnor.com/4000/4000lect02a.htm
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http://knol.google.com/k/frank-b-gilbreth-some-of-his-industrial-engineeringachievements#Sources%283A%29
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http://www.economics.arawakcity.org/node/676 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_and_motion_study
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http://en.whttp://www.chrmglobal.com/Articles/352/1/Gilbreth-s-Motion-Study.html ikipedia.org/wiki/Time_and_motion_study#Criticisms
http://www.citeman.com/1116-motion-economy-and-work-efficiency.html#ixzz1clpdM0ZI

http://gilbrethnetwork.tripod.com/qv1n2.html http://www.archive.org/details/motionstudymetho00gilbrich
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