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Compare and contrast Piaget's theory of cognitive development with Vygotsky's theory of

cognitive development.

Surbhi Prajapati

220247

Gargi College, University of Delhi,

B.A. Program (Psychology +English)

2112203602: Developmental Psychology

Dr. Shyamolima G. Choudhury

April 10, 2025

Compare and contrast Piaget's theory of cognitive development with Vygotsky's theory of
cognitive development.
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Cognitive development places a special emphasis on how individuals actively construct

their thinking. It focuses on cognitive processes which are mental processes through which we
acquire information about the world around us. Thus, cognitive development refers to a child’s
development in terms of information processing, perceptual skills, conceptual learning, language
learning, etc. The theories of cognitive development explain how this process has taken place
since our birth. These theories are:
1. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
2. Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development
These theories differ in important ways, where Piaget felt that development largely takes
place from within, while Vygotsky believed that external factors (culture) and people (family,
friends and caregivers) play a more significant role.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Jean Piaget gave the most systematic and comprehensive theory of cognitive
development. He was a Swiss Clinical Psychologist and Biologist, working at J.J. Rousseau
Institute of Child Study in Geneva, Switzerland (berk, xxx). He is known for his pioneer work in
child psychology. His approach is Genetic epistemology, the study of the origins and
development of knowledge, focusing on how knowledge is constructed and evolves through
individual cognitive development and social interactions. His work discusses how thought and
thinking capabilities develop in humans from birth. He stated that children view the world and
understand events in a different way from adults. Their logic and thinking are different from
adults. The children's thinking is constantly developing from one age to another. Piaget
introduced four concepts in the building of this theory.
1. Schemas
2. Assimilation
3. Accommodation
4. Equilibration

Schemas
Schemas are mental frameworks or organised patterns of thought that help individuals
understand and respond to information (Santrock, 2017). They are like ‘mental blueprints’ for
how to deal with things in the world. The basic building block of knowledge and the basic
structural unit of the human mind. These patterns can be simple as well as complex. A baby’s
schemes are structured by simple actions that can be performed on objects, such as sucking,
looking, and grasping (Santrock, 2017). One pattern is coordinated with another to form complex
patterns. The process of organization of schema(structural units) takes place through three
different activities: assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. (Santrock, 2017; berk, 2014)
Assimilation
Assimilation is the process of fitting new information into existing schemas. The child
interprets new experiences using what they already know. It is a process of building mental
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representation (schemas) by modifying one environment or new experiences so that it fits into an
already developed cognitive structure. For example, a child can see a zebra for the first time and
call it a “horse” because they already have a schema for horses, four-legged animals with tails.
The child tries to understand the zebra using the existing “horse” schema.
Accommodation
It means modifying existing schemas or creating new ones when new information doesn’t
fit into what the child already knows. For Example: After being corrected that the striped animal
is not a horse but a zebra, the child modifies their schema and creates a new one for “zebra” —
an animal like a horse but with black and white stripes.
Equilibration
Equilibration is the process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to create a
stable understanding of the world. It drives learning and cognitive growth. According to Piaget,
we are motivated to reach cognitive equilibrium. When children encounter something that
doesn’t fit into their existing understanding (causing disequilibrium), they adjust their schemas to
restore balance (reach equilibrium). For Example, The child originally feels confused
(disequilibrium) when they see a zebra and call it a horse but are told it's different. Through
accommodation, they learn the difference and feel mentally balanced again (equilibrium).

Piaget’s theory states that children go through four stages of cognitive development as they
actively construct their understanding of the world. (Santrock, 2017). These stages begin at birth
and continue through adulthood.

STAGES SUBSTAGES AGE KEY CONCEPT EXAMPLE

RANGE

SENSORI-MOTOR 1. Simple Birth-1 Sensation and Sucking a nipple or

STAGE reflexes month action through finger when places
(Birth- 2 years of reflexive in their mouth,
age ) behaviours. grasping

2. First habits 1 to 4 Repeating actions Sucking thumb as

and primary months related to own they suck on a
circular body nipple.
reaction

3. Secondary 4 to 8 Children becomes Baby coos to make

circular months more object- a person stay near
reaction oriented, and
repeat actions that
bring pleasure to
them

4. Coordination 8 to12 Hand-eye Crawls to a toy

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of secondary months coordination, instead of waiting

circular coordination of for someone to
reaction schemes and give it to them
intentionality

5. Tertiary 12 to 18 Experimenting Child splashes

circular months with actions, trial water in a tub
reaction and error learning using different
hand movement

6. Internalisatio 18 to 24 Develop symbols Child pretend to

n of schemes months to represent dress a doll as
events or objects they’ve seen adults
dressing them

PREOPERATION 1. Symbolic 2-4 years the young child Child might sit in
AL STAGE function gains the ability to front of a TV and
(2 to 7 years of age) substage represent mentally won’t care if
an object that is anyone else is able
not present. to watch TV or not
Egocentrism and
Animism Child might
believe that their
teddy bear has
feeling and talk to
them
A child insists that
a taller glass of
water has more
liquid than a
shorter, wider one,
even though both
hold the same
amount. (Lack of
Conservation)

2. Intuitive 4-7 years Children begin to

thought use primitive
substage reasoning and
want to know the
answers to all
sorts of questions.
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CONCRETE No specific stage Children gain a A child may

OPERATIONAL better arrange pencils in
STAGE understanding of order from shortest
(7 to 11 years of mental operations. to longest.
age) They begin (seriation)
thinking logically
about concrete
events

FORMAL No specific stage People develop A teenager debates

OPERATIONAL the ability to think ethical issues such
STAGE about abstract as climate change
(11 to 15 years of concepts, or crimes/justice.
age) deductive
reasoning, and
systematic
planning

Stage 1: Sensorimotor
The first stage of this cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage which begins with
the birth to 2 years of age. The Sensorimotor Stage is named after the fact that children's thinking
involves seeing, hearing, moving, touching, testing, and so on. This stage marks a person's
transition from a biological to a psychological being.
It is divided into 6 sub-stages,i.e. simple reflexes, first habits and primary circular
reaction, secondary circular reaction, coordination of secondary reaction, tertiary circular
reaction and internalization of schemas.

A. - simple reflexes (birth- 1 month)

The baby's behaviour in the first few weeks of life is simply reflex responses such as
sucking, stepping, and grasping. For example, when a finger or nipple is placed in a
baby's mouth, their reflex action is to suck.

B. - first habits and primary circular reaction (1 to 4 months)

The focus of this stage is repeating actions related to one's own body because they are
pleasurable. For example sucking their thumb as they suck nipples because the action
feels soothing, similar to sucking a nipple during feeding.

C. - secondary circular reaction (4-8 months)

During this time, infants develop the concept of object permanence. This refers to the
realization that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot be seen,
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heard, or touched directly. Until this level of comprehension is reached, an object that is
out of sight remains out of mind and thus non-existent. The baby starts interacting more
with the external world, paying attention to objects and people.Babies begin to
understand that their actions can influence the environment.
They tend to repeat actions that bring pleasure to them. For example, a baby coos to make
a person stay near them or to feel someone's presence.

D. - coordination of secondary circular reaction (8 to 12 months)

At this stage, babies start combining previously learned behaviors to reach a goal. This
shows the emergence of intentionality. The baby plans an action with a goal in mind,
rather than relying on trial-and-error. The infant uses multiple actions together to achieve
a goal which is called Coordination of schemes. The focus of this stage is on Hand-eye
coordination which is the ability to guide hand movements based on what the eyes see.
For example: A baby may crawl toward a toy (goal-directed action), push a pillow aside
(intentionality), and reach for the toy (hand-eye coordination).This is a major leap toward
purposeful behavior.

E. - tertiary circular reaction (12-18 months)

In this stage children usually start experimenting with actions to see different outcomes.
A child also learns through trial and error and tries different ways of doing something to
see what happens—like a little scientist. At this stage Curiosity increases, and children
start varying actions to explore consequences. For example,A child splashes water in a
tub using different hand movements.

F. - internalization of schemes (18 to 24 months)

In this sub-stage, infants develop mental representations of actions and objects, which
means they can think about things without directly seeing or doing them.
Symbolic representation takes place till this age, it is the ability to use symbols (like
gestures, words, or objects) to stand for something else. A child pretends to dress a doll
as they've seen adults dress them. This marks the beginning of symbolic thought,
imagination, and pretend play. For example, A child may feed a doll with a spoon,
imagining that she is eating like humans. This ability lays the groundwork for language
development and complex thought.

Stage 2: preoperational
This stage takes place between the ages of 2-3 to 7 years. During these years,
partial logical thinking or thought begins. For example, children understand that water
poured from one container to another is the same water. Children at this age have
difficulty understanding others’ perspectives. This is referred to as egocentrism by
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Piaget. For example, Child might sit in front of a TV and won’t care if anyone else is able to
watch TV or not . Conservation errors are also seen in this age, the child’s ability to recognise
that moving or rearranging matter does not change the quantity. For example: A child insists that
a taller glass of water has more liquid than a shorter, wider one, even though both hold the same
amount. (Berk, 2014)
Young children at this age appear to believe that objects that move are alive, but after the
age of three, they rarely refer to objects as alive. Animism is the practice of harnessing objects
with life-0 life characteristics. The cup is alive, and the chair that falls and hits the child on the
ankle is cruel.
Stage 3: concrete operational

Following this is the Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years), where children
develop the ability to think logically about concrete events. They gain a clearer
understanding of concepts like conservation, classification, and seriation. At this stage,
children can perform mental operations but still require tangible, physical references to
support their thinking. They can decenter and understand the perspectives of others
better than in the preoperational stage, though abstract reasoning remains limited.

Stage 4 formal operational

Finally, the Formal Operational Stage (11 years and up) is characterized by the
development of abstract and hypothetical thinking. Adolescents can reason logically
about abstract propositions and hypothetical scenarios. They can systematically plan
and think about future possibilities, develop metacognition (thinking about thinking), and
engage in deductive reasoning. This stage marks the peak of cognitive development in
Piaget’s theory.

Application of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget’s theory has had a major impact on educational practices, particularly in how we approach
teaching and learning. His constructivist stance supports student-centred, where learners are
encouraged to explore, question, and discover new ideas through hands-on experiences. Teachers
are seen as facilitators rather than mere providers of knowledge, and educational activities are
best aligned with the learner’s current developmental stage. For example, young children in the
preoperational stage benefit from visual aids and physical manipulation of objects, while those in
the concrete operational stage thrive on classification activities and logical reasoning tasks. In the
formal operational stage, abstract thinking tasks and problem-solving exercises become
appropriate. The emphasis on readiness ensures that children are not forced into learning
concepts for which they are not developmentally prepared.

Critical Analysis of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget helped people understand that children think differently than adults.His ideas are used in
schools to make learning more hands-on and based on the child’s level. Despite its lasting
impact, Piaget’s theory has been widely criticized and refined over the years. One major
criticism is that Piaget underestimated children’s abilities, especially in the earlier stages. For
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instance, newer research using methods like the violation-of-expectation paradigm (e.g.,
Baillargeon’s drawbridge study) demonstrates that infants as young as five months may exhibit
object permanence, challenging Piaget’s timeline.

Similarly, Donaldson and Hughes criticized Piaget’s tasks for being too abstract and not
reflecting real-world contexts, which may have made children appear less competent than they
were. Furthermore, Piaget’s theory pays little attention to social and cultural influences on
learning. While he acknowledged peer interactions as beneficial, he did not fully explore the
broader role of language, culture, and adult guidance in shaping cognition.

Moreover, Piaget's work has been critiqued for its limited view on post-adolescent
cognitive development. Although some later theorists proposed stages beyond formal operations
(e.g., postformal thought), Piaget largely concluded his theory with adolescence. Critics also
argue that his experimental methods—largely based on observations of his own children—lack
the rigor and diversity necessary for broader generalizations.

Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development

The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934, 1978) has become the foundation of much research
and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly what has become
known as sociocultural theory. The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934, 1978) has become the
foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades,
particularly what has become known as sociocultural theory. Vygotsky observed that culture is
necessary for learning, language is necessary for culture and learners learn how to think through
the influence of their community.
Vygotsky argued that higher mental abilities could only develop through interaction with
more advanced others. According to Vygotsky, adults in society foster children’s cognitive
development by engaging them in challenging and meaningful activities. Adults convey to
children how their culture interprets and responds to the world.

Key concepts of vygotsky’s theory

1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The ZPD is one of Vygotsky’s most influential ideas. It refers to the gap between what a
learner can do independently and what they can do with the help of a more knowledgeable other
(MKO). The ZPD identifies the skills that are in the process of maturing and can be developed
with guidance. Effective instruction should aim just above the learner’s current level to stimulate
growth. As the learner becomes more competent, this “zone” expands. Freund’s (1990)
Dollhouse Study discusses how children had to decide which furniture belonged in certain rooms
of a dollhouse. One group received guidance from their mothers beforehand (guided learning),
while the other worked alone. The children who received help performed significantly better,
supporting the idea of the ZPD and the value of collaborative learning.

2. More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

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An MKO is anyone who has a better understanding or higher ability in a particular task
than the learner. This can be a parent, teacher, older sibling, peer, or even a technological tool
like a learning app. The MKO provides scaffolding—temporary support that helps the learner
bridge the ZPD. As the learner gains mastery, the MKO gradually reduces support until the
learner can function independently.Abtahi (2016) suggested that learning tools themselves (like
fraction strips in math) can function as MKOs, guiding students without a human teacher. This
highlights that material culture also carries instructional power, supporting the cultural
embeddedness of learning.

3. Scaffolding

Though not coined by Vygotsky himself (introduced by Wood, Bruner, and Ross in
1976), scaffolding aligns closely with his ideas. It involves tailoring support to the learner’s
needs, then gradually removing it as they gain competence. Scaffolding strategies include
modelling, simplifying the task, providing hints, asking guiding questions, and giving feedback.
Effective scaffolding is contingent—responsive to the learner’s evolving needs.3. Wertsch et al.
(1980) –conducted a study of Jigsaw Puzzles , showing that mothers adjusted their guidance
according to their children’s skill levels, offering more support to younger children and gradually
reducing it as they gained competence. This dynamic adjustment shows scaffolding within the
ZPD.

4. Internalization

This is the process through which social interactions become internal mental processes.
Vygotsky emphasized that higher mental functions (like reasoning, problem-solving, and self-
regulation) originate socially and are later internalized by the child. For instance, a child initially
solves a puzzle with help from a parent but later applies the same strategies independently.
Internalization bridges the social and individual realms of development.

5. Private Speech and Inner Speech

Vygotsky viewed private speech (talking to oneself out loud) as a vital step in
development, especially in planning, problem-solving, and self-guidance. Unlike Piaget, who
considered it egocentric, Vygotsky believed private speech helps children self-regulate their
behavior. Over time, this private speech becomes inner speech, or silent self-talk, which supports
complex mental functions. Berk (1986) found that children use private speech more frequently
when working on difficult tasks and when adult assistance is not available. This supports
Vygotsky’s claim that private speech helps with self-regulation and problem-solving. Further,
children who engaged more in private speech showed better task performance.

6. Tools of Intellectual Adaptation

These are the culturally transmitted tools—especially language—that help children learn
how to think. Other examples include counting systems, maps, diagrams, memory aids, and
writing systems. These tools shape the child’s thought processes and are culture-specific,
meaning that cognitive development is influenced by the tools available in each society.
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Comparison between Piaget's and Vygotsky’s theory

Aspect Jean Piaget Lev Vygotsky

Type of Theory Developmental (stage-based) Sociocultural developmental theory

cognitive theory

Constructivist Emphasized individual, active Emphasized social, interactive

Approach construction of knowledge construction of knowledge

Qualitative Cognitive development occurs Development is continuous and

Change through distinct, universal, socially driven, but also involves
qualitative stages qualitative internal change

Social Influence Acknowledged role of peers and Strongly emphasized role of

Recognition social interaction culture, language, and more
knowledgeable others

Source of Primarily internal processes of Arises from social interactions that

Development exploration and discovery are internalized through guided
learning

Internalization Internalization follows individual Development involves

discovery internalization of interpersonal
social interactions

Role of Peers vs. Peers are more influential; Adults (or older peers) are more
Adults disagreements with peers create influential; guided learning in the
“socio cognitive conflict” Zone of Proximal Development

View on Culture Culture has minimal influence; Culture has a massive influence;
development is universal development is culture-specific

Role of Language Language is a result of cognitive Language is central to cognitive

development development; it's a tool for thought

Private Speech Private speech = egocentric speech Private speech = tool for self-
that reflects cognitive immaturity regulation that evolves into inner
and fades by age 7 speech and matures over time
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View on Private “Egocentric” and developmentally “Saying private speech dies out is
Speech irrelevant after age 7 like saying the child stops counting
when they stop using their fingers”

Stages of Fixed, sequential stages: No fixed stages; development is

Development Sensorimotor → Preoperational → based on cultural exposure and
social experience
Concrete Operational → Formal
Operational

Focus of Independent discovery and Collaborative learning and

Learning exploration scaffolding by a more
knowledgeable other

Universality of Development is universal across Development is contextual and

Development cultures varies across cultures

Educational Emphasis on readiness and Emphasis on guided instruction,

Implications discovery learning scaffolding, reciprocal teaching,
and cultural mediation

Conclusion

Both Piaget and Vygotsky gave important ideas about how children think and learn as
they grow. Piaget believed children learn best by exploring on their own, and that their thinking
changes in stages. Vygotsky, on the other hand, believed children learn best through help from
others—like adults or smarter peers—and that culture and language play a big role in learning.
While Piaget focused more on individual learning, Vygotsky focused on learning through social
interaction. In short, both agreed that children are active learners, but they had different views on
how learning happens. Together, their theories help us better understand and support children's
development.
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References

Berk, L. E. (2014). Development Through the Lifespan. Pearson.

Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2020). Psychology (S. K. Ciccarelli & J. N. White,

Eds.). Pearson.

Papalia, D. E., & Martorell, G. (2020). Experience Human Development. McGraw-Hill

Education.

Santrock, J. W. (2017). A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development. McGraw-Hill

Education.