ENGLISH

Formal Type of Communication Skills

This type of communication is also referred to as "official communication" and covers the gamut
of verbal expressions that address a formal need.

Informal Communication

Informal communication is surprisingly popular and also referred to as "the (unofficial)

grapevine." This is often spread by word-of-mouth. In fact, it is this type of communication
that exposes you to unofficial yet provocative information.

Oral Communication (Face-to-Face)

Face-to-face oral communication is the most recognized type of communication. Here, what
you express comes directly from what you speak. Again, this can be formal or informal: with
your friends and family, in a formal meeting or seminar, at work with your colleagues and
boss, within your community, during professional presentations, etc.

Oral Communication (Distance)

Distance (oral) communication has made the world a smaller and more accessible place.
Mobile phones, VOIP, video conferencing, two-way webinars, etc., are all modern expansions
of distance communication, taking its expression to the next subtle level. In this type of
communication, your tone of voice and pace of delivery take priority over other expressions.

Non-verbal Types of Communication

This type of communication is more subtle yet far more powerful. It includes the entire gamut
of physical postures and gestures, tone and pace of voice, and the attitude with which you
communicate.

Written Communication

A few decades ago, written communication depended on the trusty old mailman as we wrote
to people who were far away. On rare occasions, this also included the formal note or legal
notice from the bank, landlord, business client, etc. It is surprising, then, that this type of
communication has now taken over every aspect of our world!

Kinesics

Kinesics or kinesic communication is all about communication through body movements, such as
gestures and facial expressions. It is all about non-verbal behavior using any part of the body.
It also includes communicating using the body as a whole. In popular culture, we call this
'body language.'

Proxemics

Proxemics is the study of space and how we use it, and how it makes us feel more or less
comfortable. How close you stand next to someone, for example, depends on the relationship
you have with that person.

 Intimate space: Very close, usually within one foot and sometimes touching.

Haptic Communication
Haptic communication is a branch of nonverbal communication that refers to the ways in
which people and animals communicate and interact via the sense of touch. Touch is the
most sophisticated and intimate of the five senses.
Paralanguage & Vocalics

We learned earlier that paralanguage refers to the vocalized but nonverbal parts of a
message. Vocalics is the study of paralanguage, which includes the vocal qualities that go
along with verbal messages, such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers
(Andersen, 1999).

Chronemics

Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. Time perceptions
include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions. The use of time can affect lifestyles,
daily agendas, speed of speech, movements, and how long people are willing to listen.

Agyu - Epic Hero of Bukidnon

Setting:

Where and when is the story set? The setting represents both the physical location and the time
(i.e., past, present, future) and the social and cultural conditions in which the characters exist.

Character:

A person, animal, or really anything personified. There can be one main character or many,
and often there are secondary characters, but not always.

Plot:

The plot consists of the events that happen in the story. In a plot, you typically find an
introduction, rising action, a climax, the falling action, and a resolution. Plot is often
represented as an arc.

Conflict:

Every story must have a conflict, i.e., a challenge or problem around which the plot is based.
Without conflict, the story will have no purpose or trajectory.

Theme:

The idea, belief, moral, lesson, or insight. It's the central argument that the author is trying to
make the reader understand. The theme is the "why" of the story.

Point of View:

"Who" is telling the story?

 First person ("I") or third person ("he/she/it").

 Limited (one character's perspective), multiple (many characters' perspectives), or
omniscient
(all-knowing narrator).
 Second person ("you") is not often used for writing stories.

Tone:

The overall emotional tone or meaning of the story. Is it happy, funny, sad, depressed? Tone
can be portrayed in multiple ways—through word and grammar choices, choice of theme,
imagery and description, symbolism, and the sounds of words in combination (i.e., rhyme,
rhythm, musicality).

Style:
This is how things are said—word choices, sentence structure, dialogue, metaphor, simile,
hyperbole. Style contributes significantly to tone.

Confucianism & Buddhism

Confucianism is an ancient Chinese belief system that focuses on the importance of personal
ethics and morality. Whether it is only a philosophy or also a religion is debated. Mencius (or
Meng Ke, who lived from 372 to 289 B.C.E.) is the best-known Confucian philosopher after
Confucius himself.

Buddhism is a faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama ("the Buddha") more than
2,500 years ago in India. With about 470 million followers, scholars consider Buddhism one
of the major world religions.

Evolution

Evolution involves gradual changes from simple to more complex forms. Humans are believed
to have developed from simpler forms. Evolution is hypothesized to have begun in the oceans
billions of years ago. Darwin introduced the theory of evolution in his book The Origin of
Species, stating that evolution occurs through natural selection. His theory emphasized the
following points:

 Natural Selection
 Variation
 Struggle for Existence
 Survival of the Fittest

Evolution is the outcome of the interaction among the following five processes:

 Mutation
 Genetic Recombination
 Chromosomal Abnormalities
 Reproductive Isolation
 Natural Selection

Early Human Ancestors

Dryopithecus

These are considered the ancestors of both humans and apes. They lived in China, Africa,
Europe, and India. The genus Dryopithecus refers to the "oak wood apes." They inhabited
tropical lowlands with dense forests and were predominantly herbivores.

Ramapithecus

Their first remains were discovered in the Shivalik range in Punjab and later in Africa and
Saudi Arabia. They lived in open grasslands. Two pieces of evidence confirm their hominid
status:

1. Thickened tooth enamel, robust jaws, and shorter canines

2. Use of hands for food and defense, suggesting an upright posture
Upward Communication – Suggestions for improvements from a student in the department
Brainstorming – Group creativity technique by gathering ideas from members
Outlining – General plan of what you are going to write
Expands on the first – How the second sentence develops the thought in the mobile checkout
system passage
Trade war between America and China – Cause of the country's inflation rate (as per Roque)
War on drugs campaign would not be successful – Possible outcome of Duterte pardoning policemen
involved in killings
Vision – What the author is praising Da Vinci for
They reinforce each other – How the two sentences about sleep relate
Formal outline – Outline with sub-points and main points
Research proposal – Document describing ideas for investigation
Full block – Most formal presentation in drafting a job application
letter Fairy tales shed light on child psychology – Best statement
for a thesis The problem is worth answering – What makes a good
paper topic Chick literature – Fiction addressing womanhood,
often humorously Catharsis – Purification of emotions in literature
or art
Sestet – A stanza with six lines
MATHEMATICS

In propositional logic, modus ponens (/'moudes 'pounenz/; MP), also known as modus ponendo ponens
(Latin for "mode that by affirming affirms") or implication elimination or affirming the antecedent, is a
deductive argument form and rule of inference. An example of an argument that fits the form modus
ponens: If today is Tuesday, then John will go to work. Today is Tuesday. Therefore, John will go to work.

Modus tollens is a valid argument form in propositional calculus in which p and q are propositions. If p
implies q, and q is false, then p is false. It is also known as an indirect proof or a proof by contrapositive.
For example, if being the king implies having a crown, not having a crown implies not being the king.

In mathematics and logic, a direct proof is a way of showing the truth or falsehood of a given statement by a
straightforward combination of established facts, usually axioms, existing lemmas, and theorems, without
making any further assumptions.

An indirect proof relies on a contradiction to prove a given conjecture by assuming the conjecture is not
true and then running into a contradiction, proving that the conjecture must be true.

A normal distribution, sometimes called the bell curve, is a distribution that occurs naturally in many
situations. For example, the bell curve is seen in tests like the SAT and GRE.

The inverse is usually shown by putting a little "-1" after the function name, like this: f⁻¹(y). We say "f
inverse of y." So, the inverse of f(x) = 2x + 3 is written as f⁻¹(y) = (y - 3)/2.

DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE D=2xr

CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE C=2xπxr
A=πxr
AREA OF A CIRCLE

Square 4 x side Square side*2

Cube side’3
Rectangle 2x(length+width) Rectangle lengthxwidth

Parallelogram 2x(side1+side2) Parallelogram base xheight

Triangle side1+side2+side3 Triangle basex height/2

Regular n-polygon nxside Regular n-polygon (1/4)xnxside2xcot(pi/n

Trapezoid Trapezoid
heightx(base1+base2)/2 base1
+base2+heightx[csc(theta1)+csc(theta2)]
Cube side'3 Rectangular Prism side1xside2xside3

Mathematicians normally use a two-valued logic: Every statement is either True or False. This is called the
Law of the Excluded Middle.

A statement in sentential logic is built from simple statements using logical connectives. The truth or falsity
of a statement built with these connectives depends on the truth or falsity of its components.
For example, the compound statement P → (Q ∨ R) is built using the logical connectives →, ∨, and ∧.
The truth or falsity of P → (Q ∨ R) depends on the truth or falsity of P, Q, and R.

A truth table shows how the truth or falsity of a compound statement depends on the truth or falsity of the
simple statements from which it's constructed. So, we'll start by looking at truth tables for the five logical
connectives.

Here’s the table for negaton:

P -P
T F
F T

This table is easy to understand. If P is true, its negation ¬P is false. If P is false, then ¬P is true.

P ∧ Q should be true when both P and Q are true and false otherwise.

P Q P∧ Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

P ∨ Q is true if either P is true or Q is true (or both—remember that we're using "or" in the inclusive
sense). It is only false if both P and Q are false.

P Q PVQ
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Here's the table for logical implication:

P Q P- Q

T T T
1 F F
F 1 T
1 F T

To understand why this table is the way it is, consider the following example:

"If you get an A, then I'll give you a dollar."

The statement will be true if I keep my promise and false if I don't.

  Suppose it's true that you get an A and true that I give you a dollar. Since I kept my promise, the
implication is true. This corresponds to the first line in the table.
 Suppose it's true that you get an A but false that I give you a dollar. Since I didn't keep my
promise, the implication is false. This corresponds to the second line in the table.
 What if it's false that you get an A? Whether or not I give you a dollar, I haven't broken my promise.
Thus, the implication can't be false, so (since this is a two-valued logic) it must be true. This
explains the last two lines of the table.

P ⇔ Q means that P and Q are equivalent. So, the double implication is true if P and Q are both true or if P
and Q are both false; otherwise, the double implication is false.

P Q P⇔ Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

A bond is a contract between two companies.

Companies or governments issue bonds because they need to borrow large amounts of money. They issue
bonds, and investors buy them (thereby giving the people who issued the bond money).

Bonds have a maturity date. This means that at some point, the bond issuer has to pay back the money to
the investors. They also have to pay the investors a little bit more than what they paid for the bond.

Amortization is the process of spreading out a loan into a series of fixed payments. The loan is paid off at
the end of the payment schedule. Some of each payment goes towards interest costs, and some goes toward
your loan balance. Over time, you pay less in interest and more toward your balance.

An annuity is a long-term agreement (contract) between you and an insurance company that allows you to
accumulate funds on a tax-deferred basis for later payout in the form of a guaranteed income that you cannot
outlive. When considering the purchase of an annuity, don't be distracted away from its simplicity.

Shares are units of equity ownership interest in a corporation that exist as a financial asset, providing for an
equal distribution in any residual profits, if any are declared, in the form of dividends. Shareholders may
also enjoy capital gains if the value of the company rises.

A stock is a general term used to describe the ownership certificates of any company. A share, on the other
hand, refers to the stock certificate of a particular company. Holding a particular company's share makes
you a shareholder.

Description: Stocks are of two types—common and preferred.

Hypothesis Testing:

 H₀ (The Null Hypothesis): It is a statement about the population that either is believed to be true
or is used to put forth an argument unless it can be shown to be incorrect beyond a reasonable
doubt.
 H₁ (The Alternative Hypothesis): It is a claim about the population that is contradictory to H₀
and what we conclude when we reject H₀.
Since the null and alternative hypotheses are contradictory, you must examine evidence to decide if you have
enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis or not. The evidence is in the form of sample data.

After determining which hypothesis, the sample supports, you make a decision. There are two options for a decision:

1. "Reject H₀" if the sample information favors the alternative hypothesis.

2. "Do not reject H₀" (or "fail to reject H₀") if the sample information is insufficient to reject the
null hypothesis.

Mathematical Symbols Used in H₀ and H₁:

Ho H.
EQUAL (=) NOT EQUAL (#)
GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO LESS THAN (<)
LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO (<, =) MORE THAN (>)

Note:

 H₀ always has a symbol with an equal sign in it.

 H₁ never has a symbol with an equal sign in it.
 The choice of symbol depends on the wording of the hypothesis test. However, be aware that many
researchers (including one of the co-authors in research work) use = in the null hypothesis, even when > or <
is used as the symbol in the alternative hypothesis.
 This practice is acceptable because we only make the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis.

Asymptotes

An asymptote is a line that the graph of a function approaches as either x or y goes to positive or negative infinity.
There are three types of asymptotes: vertical, horizontal, and oblique.

 A vertical asymptote is a vertical line where the function approaches infinity. It is typically written as x = a.
 A horizontal asymptote is a horizontal line that the graph approaches as x goes to positive or negative
infinity. It is written as y = a.
 An oblique (or slant) asymptote is a diagonal line of the form y = mx + b, where m ≠ 0.
o Oblique asymptotes occur when the degree of the numerator of a rational function is one more than
the degree of the denominator.

A probability distribution is a statistical function that describes all the possible values and likelihoods that a
random variable can take within a given range.

Standard deviation is a number used to describe how measurements for a group are spread out from the
average (mean or expected value). A low standard deviation means that most of the numbers are close to
the average, while a high standard deviation means that the numbers are more spread out.

Confidence Intervals
For a given statistic calculated from a sample of observations (e.g., the mean), the confidence interval is a
range of values around that statistic that are believed to contain, with a certain probability (e.g., 95%), the
true population value of that statistic. Strictly speaking, a 95% confidence interval means that if we were
to take 100 different samples and compute a 95% confidence interval for each sample, then
approximately 95 out of 100 confidence intervals would contain the true mean value (μ).

An interest rate is a percentage charged on the total amount you borrow or save. Even a small change in
interest rates can have a significant impact.
Dividend – Share in the company's profit
Negatively skewed – Distribution with mean 19, median 20, mode 22.5
₱20,000.00 – Amount invested at 10% if total income is ₱7,000.00 from ₱50,000.00
₱24 – Simple interest earned from ₱1,200.00 at 6% for 4
months Point estimator – Single-value estimate of a
population parameter Reject H₀ – Decision when p-value is
less than significance level
(-1, -1) – Point where f(x) = 7x + 2 intersects with its inverse
Percentage – Used to express parts of a whole, often in interest/discount
calculations Bond – A loan made by an investor to a borrower, usually
government or corporation Annuity – A series of equal payments made at
regular intervals

Stocks – Shares that represent ownership in a company and a claim on part of its profits.
Shares – Units of ownership in a company or financial asset.
p- value – The probability of obtaining test results at least as extreme as the observed results,

assuming H₀ is true.
Amortization – Gradual repayment of a debt over time through regular payments of principal
and interest. Probability distribution – A table or function that shows the likelihood of different
outcomes in an experiment.
Standard distribution (Normal distribution) – A symmetric, bell-shaped distribution where most
values cluster around the mean.
Modus ponens – Logical rule: If P → Q and P is true, then Q is true.
Modus tollens – Logical rule: If P → Q and Q is false, then P is false.
Bell curve – Graphical representation of a normal distribution; symmetric and shaped like a bell.
Vertical line – A line that goes up and down, undefined slope, equation: x = a constant.
Horizontal line – A line that goes left to right, zero slope, equation: y = a constant.
Oblique line – A slanted line that has a non-zero, non-infinite slope (not vertical or horizontal).
 SCIENCE

Oceans cover more than 70% of the Earth's surface, and half of those waters are at least 1.86
miles (3 km) deep.
As far as we know, the deepest point in the ocean is 36,200 feet (11,000 m or almost 7 miles) deep.
On average, the ocean is about 12,100 feet (3,688 m) deep.

Animals living in the bathypelagic zone or deeper never see sunlight. Some organisms living
there, such as vampire squid and humpback anglerfish, produce their own light.

More than 99% of Earth's inhabitable space is in the open

ocean. The ocean is divided into five zones:

 Epipelagic zone (upper open ocean): Surface to 650 feet deep

 Mesopelagic zone (middle open ocean): 650–3,300 feet deep
 Bathypelagic zone (lower open ocean): 3,300–13,000 feet deep
 Abyssopelagic zone (the abyss): 13,000–20,000 feet deep
 Hadopelagic zone (deep ocean trenches): 20,000 feet and deeper

The ocean produces more than 50% of the air we breathe.

Humans have only explored 5% of the world's oceans. However, it is believed that humans have impacted
every part of the ocean with waste and chemical pollution.

Comet nuclei are loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles, ranging from a few kilometers to
tens of kilometers across. They are composed of rock, dust, ice, and frozen gases such as carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, and ammonia.

When meteoroids enter Earth's atmosphere (or that of another planet, like Mars) at high speed and burn up,
the fireballs or "shooting stars" are called meteors. When a meteoroid survives a trip through the
atmosphere and hits the ground, it's called a meteorite.
An ecosystem is a community or group of living organisms that live in and interact with
each oth er in a specific environment.

The Skin

The integumentary system is the largest organ of the body, making up 15-20% of our total body
mass. It acts as a barrier against physical, chemical, and biological agents. The skin prevents water
loss, regulates body temperature, and transmits the senses of touch, pain, and pleasure. It helps
maintain body temperature by secreting sweat.

Hair lubricates the scalp, secretes pheromones, and helps cool or warm our heads. Nails protect
our fingers, which are essential tools for self-defense, obtaining food, building shelter, and
experiencing sensations.

The skin is most vulnerable when compromised by open wounds, allowing infectious agents to
enter the body.
Musculoskeletal System

Skeletal System (Bones, Joints)

The skeletal system supports and protects the body's internal organs. The ribs protect the
abdominal organs, which are both vulnerable to injury and dangerous to our well-being when
damaged. The skull protects the brain, which controls all functions of the body and mind.

The skeleton provides structure and shape to the body and connects to major muscles, allowing
movement. Bones store essential minerals like calcium and produce blood cells in the soft bone
tissue called marrow.

Without enough calcium, bones can break easily and are susceptible to diseases such as:

 Arthritis
 Cancers
 Scoliosis
 Osteoporosis
 Gout
 Bursitis
 Fractures and breaks
 Amputations

The human skeleton is composed of 206 bones.

Muscular System (Cardiac, Smooth, and Skeletal Muscles)

 Cardiac muscles are found in the heart and power the actions that maintain blood flow
throughout the body.
 Smooth (involuntary) muscles are found in the organs and surround internal structures.
They are responsible for movements such as moving food through the digestive tract.
 Skeletal (voluntary) muscles carry out movements based on messages sent from
the brain through the nervous system. They also help maintain posture and
produce heat.

When muscles lack oxygen, they can cramp and tear, causing pain. If not used, they may atrophy
and become weak.

Diseases and disorders of the muscular system include:

 Muscular dystrophy
 Fibromyalgia
 Tendinitis
 Multiple sclerosis
 Muscle strains and sprains
 Hernias

Lymphatic System (Red Bone Marrow, Thymus, Lymphatic Vessels, Thoracic Duct, Spleen, Lymph
Nodes)

The lymphatic system transports clean fluids back to the blood while draining excess fluids and
debris from tissues and cells. It also houses white blood cells (lymphocytes), which protect the
body from infection.

Diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system include:

 Anemia
 Leukemia
  Tuberculosis of the lymph nodes
 Hodgkin's disease
 Other blood disorders

Respiratory System (Nasal Cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchus, Lungs)

The respiratory system enables breathing by supplying the body with oxygen for cellular respiration
and removing carbon dioxide as a waste product. It is also responsible for speech and smell.

Diseases and disorders of the respiratory system include:

 Allergies
 Rhinitis and sinusitis
 Laryngitis
 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
 Pleurisy
 Bronchitis
 Emphysema
 Asthma
 Sarcoidosis
 Pulmonary fibrosis
 Asbestosis
 Pulmonary vascular diseases
 Fungal or bacterial infections of the lungs
 Sleep apnea
 Tuberculosis of the respiratory system
 Lung, throat, and other respiratory cancers

Digestive System (Oral Cavity, Esophagus, Liver, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Rectum,
Anus)

Starting from the mouth, the digestive system is responsible for breaking down food, absorbing
nutrients, and eliminating waste that the body does not use. It identifies which minerals,
vitamins, and other essential nutrients from food can be absorbed, stored, or disposed of.

Diseases and disorders of the digestive system include:

 Diverticulitis
 Gastritis
 Pancreatitis
 Cholecystitis
 Cirrhosis
 Hepatitis
 Liver cancer
 Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
 Crohn’s disease
 Hemorrhoids

Nervous System (Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves)

The nervous system consists of two main parts:

1. The Central Nervous System (CNS) – Includes the brain and spinal cord.
2. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – Includes all the nerves that connect the CNS to
the rest of the body.
This system controls all bodily functions, including digestion, heartbeat, breathing, and muscle
activation. It also transmits sensory information, such as pain and external stimuli, to the brain.

Diseases and disorders of the nervous system include:

 Paralysis
 Parkinson’s disease
 Cerebral palsy
 Embolisms
 Thrombosis
 Arteriosclerosis
 Polio
 Myelitis
 ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis)
 Meningitis
 Multiple sclerosis (MS)
 Muscular tics
 Huntington’s disease
 Brain, spinal cord, or nerve cancers
 Epilepsy and seizure disorders
 Narcolepsy
 Migraine headaches
 Peripheral neuropathy
 Traumatic brain injury (TBI)

Endocrine System (Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, Thymus, Adrenal Glands,
Pancreas, Ovaries, Testes)

The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones, regulating many bodily
functions such as growth, reproduction, metabolism, and blood glucose levels.

Diseases and disorders of the endocrine system include:

 Type 1 & Type 2 Diabetes

 Hypoglycemia
 Addison’s disease
 Cushing’s syndrome
 Hyperthyroidism / Hypothyroidism
 Thyroid cancer
 Other cancers of the endocrine glands

Cardiovascular (Circulatory) System (Heart, Blood Vessels)

The heart, made of cardiac muscle, pumps blood through arteries, veins, and capillaries, delivering
oxygen, nutrients, and waste throughout the body.

Diseases and disorders associated with the cardiovascular system include:

 Myocardial infarction (heart attack)

 Coronary bypass surgery
 Arrhythmias
 Valve replacements
 Pacemakers
 Heart transplants
 Ischemic heart disease
  Hypertensive heart disease
 Arteriosclerotic heart disease
 Hypertension (high blood pressure)
 Aneurysms
 Fistulas
 Arteriosclerosis
 Anaphylactic shock
 Varicose veins
 Cold weather injuries affecting circulation
 Sarcomas of the blood vessels

Urinary System (Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary Bladder, Urethra)

The urinary system is responsible for eliminating waste products from metabolism and other
materials that are no longer needed by the body. It also plays a crucial role in maintaining
fluid balance, regulating electrolyte levels, and ensuring proper pH balance in the blood.

Diseases and disorders of the urinary system include:

 Nephrosis
 Bladder cancer
 Urethritis
 Bedwetting (enuresis)
 Kidney and urinary stones
 Urinary tract infections (UTIs)
 Renal failure
 Incontinence
 Blood in the urine (hematuria)
 Interstitial cystitis

Genitourinary System (Prostate Gland, Penis, Testes, Scrotum, Ductus Deferens)

The genitourinary system includes the urinary and male reproductive systems. It is involved in both
waste elimination and reproduction, ensuring proper function of the urinary tract while also
playing a role in sperm production and hormone regulation.

Reproductive System

Male (Prostate Gland, Penis, Testes, Scrotum, Ductus Deferens)

The male reproductive system is responsible for producing sperm and testosterone. It plays a
crucial role in human reproduction.

Female (Mammary Glands, Ovaries, Uterus, Vagina, Fallopian Tubes)

The female reproductive system produces eggs (ova) and sex hormones. Fertilization occurs in the
fallopian tube, and the uterus serves as the site for fetal development. The mammary glands
produce milk for newborns.

Diseases and disorders of the female reproductive system include:

 Breast cancer
  Mastectomy or lumpectomy (removal of breast tissue)
 Hysterectomy (removal of the uterus)
 Pregnancy complications
 Endometriosis
 Ovarian or cervical cancers
 Diseases or injuries affecting the vulva, vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, or ovaries

Geology: Types of Rocks and Geological Processes

Igneous Rocks

Formed from the solidification of molten rock. Some form below Earth's surface (intrusive), while
others form on or above Earth's surface (extrusive).

Types of Igneous Rocks:

 Intrusive (cool slowly underground, forming large crystals):

o Diabase
o Diorite
o Gabbro
o Granite
o Pegmatite
o Peridotite
 Extrusive (cool quickly on the surface, forming small or no crystals):
o Andesite
o Basalt
o Dacite
o Obsidian
o Pumice
o Rhyolite
o Scoria
o Tuff

Metamorphic Rocks

Formed by heat, pressure, and chemical processes, usually deep underground, which change the
texture, mineral composition, and structure of the rock.

Types of Metamorphic Rocks:

 Foliated (layered or banded appearance due to directed pressure):

o Gneiss
o Phyllite
o Schist
o Slate
 Non-foliated (no distinct layers or bands):
o Hornfels
o Marble
o Novaculite
o Quartzite
o Skarn

Sedimentary Rocks
Formed by the accumulation and compaction of sediments.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks:

1. Clastic (formed from mechanical weathering debris):

o Breccia
o Conglomerate
o Sandstone
o Siltstone
o Shale
2. Chemical (formed from precipitation of dissolved minerals):
o Chert
o Some Dolomites
o Flint
o Iron Ore
o Limestones
o Rock Salt
3. Organic (formed from plant or animal remains):
o Chalk
o Coal
o Diatomite
o Some Dolomites
o Some Limestones

Geological Processes: Erosion & Weathering

 Erosion: The process by which earth materials are worn away and transported by natural
forces
like wind, water, and ice.
 Weathering: The breaking down or dissolving of rocks on Earth’s surface due to factors like
water, acids, salts, plants, temperature changes, and animal activity.

Astronomical Events: Equinox & Solstice

 Equinox: When Earth’s hemispheres receive equal sunlight, making day and night
nearly equal. The term comes from the Latin words aequus (equal) and nox (night).
 Solstice: Occurs when the Sun is farthest north or south of the Equator.
o Winter Solstice: Shortest day of the year.
o Summer Solstice: Longest day of the year.

Composition of Earth’s Atmosphere

 Nitrogen (N₂): 78%

 Oxygen (O₂): 21%
 Argon (Ar): 0.9%
 Trace gases (CO₂, Methane, Ozone, Nitrous Oxides): ~0.1%
 Example
Type Description
Organisms

Occurs when a parent cell split into two identical daughters Bacteria, Protists
Fission
cells of the same size. Unicellular Fungi

Starfish, some worms,

Occurs when a parent organism breaks into fragments, or
Fragmentation
pieces, and each fragment develops into a new organism. fungi, plants. lichens

Occurs when a parent cell forms a bubble-like bud. The bud stays
attached to the parent cell while it grows and
Budding Yeast, Hydra
develops. When the bud is fully developed, it breaks away from
the parent cell and forms a new organism.

Vegetative Occurs when new individuals are formed without the

Plants
Reproduction production of seeds or spores.

Any form of reproduction that does not involve a male Many plants and some
Agamogenesis animals.
gamete.

Vocabulary

 Agamogenesis: Any form of reproduction that does not involve a male gamete.
 Asexual reproduction: Reproduction involving only one parent; occurs without the
fusion of gametes and produces offspring that are genetically identical to the
parent.
 Budding: A form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from an
outgrowth or bud on another organism. The bud may stay attached or break free
from the parent.
 Clone: A genetically identical copy, which may be a gene, a cell, or an organism. An
organism that is genetically identical to its parent.
 Diploid: The state of a cell containing two sets of chromosomes. In human somatic
cells, two sets equal 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes, 2n.
 Fission: Asexual reproduction in which a parent separates into two or more
individuals of about equal size.
 Fragmentation: Asexual reproduction in which the body breaks into several
fragments, each of which later develops into a complete organism.
 Gamete: A reproductive cell in sexually reproducing organisms, such as sperm and egg
cells.
 Haploid: The state of a cell containing one set of chromosomes. In human gametes, one
set equals 23 chromosomes, n.
 Meiosis: A type of cell division that halves the number of chromosomes and forms gametes.
 Parthenogenesis: A form of asexual reproduction where the growth and development
of embryos occur without fertilization.
 Reproduction: The process by which living organisms give rise to offspring,
making the next generation.
 Sexual reproduction: Reproduction involving the joining of haploid gametes, producing
genetically diverse individuals.
 Spore: A haploid reproductive cell found in plants, algae, and some protists,
capable of fully developing without fusing with another cell.
 Vegetative reproduction: A type of asexual reproduction found in plants where new
individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores.
 Zygote: A fertilized egg; the first cell of a new organism.
Tropical Weather Terms

 Tropical Wave: An inverted trough (an elongated area of relatively low pressure) or
cyclonic curvature maximum moving east to west across the tropics. These can lead
to the formation of a tropical cyclone. Also known as an easterly wave.
 Tropical Disturbance: A tropical weather system with organized convection (generally
100-300 miles in diameter) originating in the tropics or subtropics, having a non-frontal
migratory character and maintaining its identity for 24 hours or longer. It may or may
not be associated with a detectable perturbation of the wind field.
 Tropical Cyclone: A low-pressure system (not associated with a front) that develops
over tropical and sometimes subtropical waters and has organized deep convection
with a closed wind circulation around a well-defined center.
 Extratropical Cyclone: A cyclone (of any intensity) in which the primary energy
source is baroclinic, meaning it results from the temperature contrast between
warm and cold air masses.
 Post-Tropical Cyclone: A cyclone that no longer possesses sufficient tropical
characteristics to be considered a tropical cyclone. Post-tropical cyclones can continue
to bring heavy rains and high winds. Former tropical cyclones that become
extratropical or remnant lows are two specific classes of post-tropical cyclones.
 Remnant Low: A class of post-tropical cyclones that no longer possess the convective
organization required of a tropical cyclone and have maximum sustained winds of less
than 34 knots.
 Subtropical Cyclone: A non-frontal low-pressure system with characteristics of both
tropical and extratropical cyclones. Subtropical cyclones originate over tropical or
subtropical waters and have a closed circulation around a well-defined center.
Compared to tropical cyclones, their maximum winds occur farther from the center
(greater than 60 nautical miles), and they have a less symmetric wind field and
distribution of convection.
 Tropical Depression: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained surface winds
(one-minute average) of 38 mph (33 knots) or less.
 Tropical Storm: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained surface winds ranging from
39-73 mph (34-63 knots).
 Hurricane: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained surface winds of 74 mph or
greater (64 knots or greater).

Note: The number of tropical storms and hurricanes increases substantially in August, peaks in
mid- September, and decreases towards a minimum by early November.

 Tropical Storm Watch: Issued when tropical storm conditions, including winds of 39-73
mph, pose a POSSIBLE threat to a specified coastal area within 48 hours.
 Tropical Storm Warning: Issued when tropical storm conditions, including winds of 39-73
mph, are EXPECTED in a specified coastal area within 36 hours or less.
 Hurricane Watch: Issued when sustained winds of 74 mph or higher are POSSIBLE
within the specified area of the watch. Because hurricane preparedness activities
become difficult once winds reach tropical storm force, the watch is issued 48 hours in
advance of the onset of tropical storm- force winds.
 Hurricane Warning: Issued when sustained winds of 74 mph or higher are EXPECTED
somewhere within the specified area of the warning. Because hurricane preparedness
activities become difficult once winds reach tropical storm force, the warning is issued
36 hours in advance of the onset of tropical storm-force winds.

Note: A hurricane warning can remain in effect when dangerously high water or a combination of
dangerously high water and exceptionally high waves continues, even if the winds have
subsided below hurricane intensity.

 Eye Wall: An organized band of cumulonimbus clouds immediately surrounding the

center of the tropical cyclone.
 Storm Surge: An abnormal rise in sea level accompanying a tropical cyclone. This is the
difference in height between the observed level of the sea surface and the level that
 would have occurred in the absence of the storm. Storm surge is usually estimated by
subtracting the normal or astronomical tide from the observed storm tide.
 Storm Tide: The water level rise resulting from the astronomical tide combined
with the storm surge.
Genetic Engineering & Fermentation

 Genetic engineering: The process of using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology to

alter the genetic makeup of an organism. Traditionally, humans have manipulated
genomes indirectly by controlling breeding and selecting offspring with desired
traits.
 Fermentation: A metabolic process in which microorganisms create desirable changes
in food and beverages, such as enhancing flavor, preserving food, and providing
health benefits.

Examples of Products Formed by Fermentation

 Beer
 Wine
 Yogurt
 Cheese
 Certain sour foods containing lactic acid, including sauerkraut, kimchi, and pepperoni
 Bread leavening by yeast
 Sewage treatment
 Some industrial alcohol production, such as for biofuel

Types of Fermentation

 Lactic acid fermentation: Converts glucose or other six-carbon sugars into energy and
lactic acid, used in making sauerkraut, pickles, kimchi, yogurt, and sourdough bread.
 Ethanol fermentation (alcohol fermentation): Yeasts break down pyruvate molecules into
alcohol and carbon dioxide, producing wine and beer.
 Acetic acid fermentation: Starches and sugars from grains and fruit ferment into
vinegar and condiments, such as apple cider vinegar, wine vinegar, and
kombucha.

Theory of Evolution
Evolution describes the gradual development of life from simpler to more complex forms.
Charles Darwin proposed the theory of evolution through natural selection in his book On the
Origin of Species. The theory includes key concepts such as:

 Natural Selection - Organisms with traits that help them survive and reproduce are
more likely to pass those traits to their offspring. Over time, this leads to gradual
changes in a species.
 Variation - Within a species, individuals have differences in traits, such as size, color,
or strength. These variations can be passed from parents to offspring.
 Struggle for Existence - Organisms compete for limited resources like food, water,
and shelter. Not all individuals survive because there isn't enough for everyone.
 Survival of the Fittest - The individuals best suited to their environment are more likely
to survive and reproduce. "Fittest" doesn’t always mean the strongest—it means best
adapted to survive.

Evolution results from five main processes:

 Mutation - A random change in DNA that can create new traits. Some mutations can
be helpful, harmful, or have no effect on an organism.
 Genetic Recombination - The mixing of genes during reproduction, which
creates unique combinations of traits in offspring. This increases variation
within a species.
 Chromosomal Abnormalities - Errors in chromosomes, such as missing or extra parts,
that can lead to genetic disorders or changes in an organism’s traits.
 Reproductive Isolation - When groups of the same species are separated and can
no longer mate, leading to the formation of new species over time.
 Natural Selection - Organisms with traits that help them survive are more likely to
reproduce, passing those traits to future generations.
Marble, Schist, Gneiss – Group of rocks that represent metamorphic rocks
Ozone layer – Part of the atmosphere that blocks harmful UV radiation
Venus orbits the Sun faster than it rotates on its axis – What it means when a day on Venus is
longer than its year
Meteoroid (space), Meteor (burns in atmosphere), Meteorite (hits ground) – Difference between
meteoroid, meteor, and meteorite
Normal force – Force exerted by a surface when an object is placed on it
Light in vacuum – What the symbol “c” represents in E = mc²
Weight decreases – What happens as an airplane flies higher
32.0 km/hr – Average speed needed to travel 8 km in 15 minutes
9.2 x 10⁻¹² N – Force between two negatively charged balloons 5.0 cm apart
Series connection circuit – Type of circuit where available voltage decreases with more resistances
Heliocentric Model – Sun-centered model of the solar system by Copernicus
Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Great Rift Valley – Formations due to divergent boundary
Geological mapping, slope hazard detection – Ways to minimize landslide effects
Transpiration – How plants get rid of excess water
Hydrogen bonding – Strongest intermolecular force of attraction
Catalyst – Substance that increases rate of reaction without being consumed
Increased intermolecular forces – What happens when water’s surface tension increases