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WITS COLLEGE AGRICULTURE
DEPARTMENT

AQUACULTURE/ FISH FARMING

This is the rearing of fish in controlled environment for food or for sale.

Fish can be reared in structures such as ponds, cages, pens, or dams among others depending on the
size of the farm, drainage pattern, capital available and type of fish to be reared.

Importance of fish farming

 Prevent over reliance and depletion of fish in the natural water bodies such as lakes.
 It is a form of diversification of farming enterprises.
 Fish provides food to the farmer if grown on a small scale or natives if on commercial scale.
 It allows utilization of the, would be idle land e.g. parts of the farm that are water logged, low
land or swamps.
 It is a source of employment opportunities.
 It earns foreign exchange to the country if practiced on large scale and products exported.
 It may provide a compensation for the diminishing fish catches from the natural waters.
 Ensures proper utilization of resources on mixed.

Advantages of fish farming

 Fish products have ready demand on the world market i.e. have ready market.
 They are highly profitable fetching high income from a small area of land.
 Fish growth can be regulated by the farmer e.g. giving extra feeds, safety etc.
 Provides an easy and cheap source of fish.
 Reduces dangers associated with fishing in lakes and rivers.
 Requires a small piece of land.
 Less affected by pests and diseases compared to other livestock.

Limitations of fish farming in Uganda

 Inadequate research into commercially valuable fish species.

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 Limited experience among farmers in fish farming thus, poor management of fish farms.
 High rates of pollution of the environment, including the sources of water for fish farming.
 Poor quality of fish seeds for commercial farming.
 Inefficient equipment used in fish farming due to low levels of technology.
 Competition with fish from natural water bodies for market.
 Inadequate supply of fish seeds to local farmers.
 Strict environment regulatory laws that prohibit farming in swampy areas.
 Poor storage and marketing facilities for fish and fish products leading to spoilage.
 Cultural beliefs which prohibit consumption of fish among some tribes.
 Inadequate quality fish feeds in the market.
 Inadequate funding for construction of ponds that are quite expensive for local farmers.
 Diseases and predators that attack and kill fish reducing fish stock in the ponds.

Farmed Fish Species in Uganda/Fish Species of Commercial Value to Farmers

 KEY: T- Tanzania, U-Uganda and K – Kenya

Vernacular name Common name Scientific name Features

Mputa (U) Nile perch Lates niliticus Requires deep water must be
Angara (T) Very large fish clear
Mbuta (K) Family: Centropomidea The dorsal fins almost Predatory in nature
completely divided into two
parts by deep notch
Ngege (U) TILAPIA FISH Oreochromis niliticus (wavy Feeds on vegetation
Sato (K) FAMILY: CICHLIDAE caudal fins) and oreochromis Proffers shallow water with
Perege (T) leucostictus (spotted bodyy0 good with aquatic weed cover
Male (U) Mud fish, barbell cat fish Claris geriepinus Occur in marginal water lily
Muni (K) Family: clariidea Dark grey black above and and papyrus swamps
Kambale (T) creamy white yellow body
bellow
Has tough upper head surface
Has two pairs barbells on the
head
Nkolongo or nkumunye (U) Cat fish Afrofisceri and victoriea Occur in marginal swamps
Okoko (K) and shallow waters
Gogogo or ngogo (T) Family: machokidea Have branched mandibular The body is silver grey with
barbells dark spots

Mamba (U) Lung fish Protopterus aethiopicus Occur in shallow inshore

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Kamongo (K $ T) Has elongated body petrel and waters and swamps

Family: protopteridae pelvic fins are slender and
filamentous
Semutundu (U) Cat fish Bagrus d0emac Can grow in both deep and
Mbofu (T) Family: Bagriidea Has scale less body and shallow waters with good
Sew (K) possess long aquatic cover
Ngege (U) Tilapia Tilapia zillii Prefer shallow water with a
Salo (T) Large of 40cm long body good aquatic weed cover
Sili (K) Family: Cichlidea Less horizontal strips
Crossed by vertical bars
Mukene (U) Sardine or silver cyprinidea Rastrineobola argentea Lives in deep and shallow
Dagaa (T) Family: cyprinidea water
Omena (K, U $ T)
Kasulu (U) Elephant snout fish Mormyrus kannume Lives in deep and shallow
Mbete or suma (T) water
Domodo (K) Family: mormyridea
Nzere (U) Butter fish Schiibe mystus Lives in deep and shallow
Membe (T), Sire (K) Family: schielbeidea water

External features of a fish

 All fish have tails and fins; for steering through water during movements.
 They have eyes; for seeing in water environment.
 Gills; for removing oxygen and nutrients from the surrounding water.
 Lateral lines; for feeling pressure, vibration and temperature changes in the water.
 Barbells (in cat fish); small projections hanging from the sides of the mouth, for sensing the
surrounding, finding food, and attracting small fish which they feed on.
 Mouths; for feeding in water.
 Operculum/gill covers; for protecting the gills against external damages.
 Scales on the body; which are slippery to allow escape from the enemies and protect the body
against mechanical injuries.

Life cycle of fish

 Fish starts life as a fertilized egg.

 The eggs grow and hatch into small fish called fry.

 Fry eat tiny plants and animals in water called planktons.

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 They range from 0.5 to 3cm in length and the stage takes about 6 to 8 days depending on the
species.

 The next stage of growth cycle includes the Fingerlings.

 They are the size of a person's finger and 4 to 10cm long.

 The Fingerlings grow into the brood fish.

 This is sexually mature and ready to breed/spawn, produce eggs and begin the whole cycle
again.

FISH FARMING SYSTEMS

a). INTENSIVE SYSTEM.

 This aims at obtaining the highest yield from a minimum area of water.
 It requires heavy inputs in the forms of fertilizers and pelleted feeds, high density stocking and
improved management of fish ponds.
 The yield per unit area is high.
 It is usually commercial.

b). SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEMS.

 The ponds or raceways are fertilized and supplementary feeds consisting of mainly locally
available materials such as kitchen wastes and brewery wastes are used minimally.
 The yield is usually moderate i.e. smaller than that of intensive systems but greater than that
of extensive systems.

c). EXTENSIVE SYSTEMS.

 In these systems, there is no supplementary feeding.

 There is minimal fertilization of the pond.
 Low density stocking
 Absence of vigorous management procedures
 There are low yields obtained.

d). INTEGRATED FISH FARMING.

 This is a system where fish farming is practiced in combination with crop and animal
husbandry.

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 The interaction is complementary rather than competitive e.g. wastes and by-products from
crops and animals are used to feed fish and fish or their products used to feed animals etc.

Advantages of Integrated Fish Farming

 Increases fish yield as a result of increased nutrient and feed input.

 It provides cost effective way of utilizing manure and wastes on the farm.
 Reduced dependence on external inputs.
 Increase in the overall production per unit of land.
 Allows recycling and proper utilization of farm wastes.

Disadvantages of Integrated Fish Farming

 Manure from animals may give fish bad odour, lowering their market quality.
 Manure in the pond may lead to increased oxygen demand.
 Manure may lower pH of the water thus, reducing growth of fish.
 More labour may be needed to manage the farm.
 More capital is required in the systems.

Considerations when starting up a fish farm

 Land: there should be adequate land for pond construction

 Soil type: the soil in the area must be fertile enough to supply the nutrients required for
plankton growth and also hold the water
 Water: good quality permanent water source should be available
 Climate: the climatic conditions in the area should be suitable and favourable to the selected
fish species to be farmed
 Environmental concern: important natural grasses should not be used for fish farming
 Risks: e.g. theft, predation, mortality due to pollution should be properly assessed and
solutions developed
 Availability of market: there should be market for relatively farmed fish species
 Capital: capital is an essential requirement to start up a fish farming business
 Fish stock: there should be a reliable source of good quality farmed fish species
 Feed availability: feeds available should match the selected fish species
 Legal environmental requirements: it should be permissible in the area you intend to carry it
out

FISH FARMING STRUCTURES

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The rearing structures generally, help to confine fish within a given area; suitable for growth and
reproduction of fish.

Such structures include; ponds, cages, tanks, raceways, pens and dams among others.

 Raceways.

This is a semi-closed structure made from concrete blocks or other durable materials to confine fish.
They are designed to provide water flow through the system to enable rearing much denser population
of fish of different species.

Water moves quickly through the structure providing oxygen and flushing out metabolic wastes
especially ammonia.

Advantages:

 The amount of oxygen in the water is high.

 Can be used in intensive fish farming as it allows a high stocking density.
 Metabolites are continuously removed.
 Can be used to rear a variety of fish species.
 Occupies such a less space than ponds.

Disadvantages:

 Requires a lot of water from a reliable source.

 Disease organisms in one raceway can easily spread to other raceways downstream.
 Encourages accumulation of metabolites in the segments downstream especially in series
arrangement.
 May require technical skills.
 DAMS.

This involves blocking of a stream or river resulting in a large collection of water behind the blockage.

The barrage can be constructed out of soil, concrete, metal or marine wood.

The site selected for the dam should be;

 Gently sloping,
 With soils of high water holding capacity;
 Free from strong winds and

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 With a reliable water supply.

How to Maintain a Dam:

 Remove excess plants regularly from the water.

 Keep the water level constant.
 Repair any leakage in the walls and outlets.
 Cut down vegetation near the dam to prevent the roots of the trees from damaging the dam walls.
 Control wild fish entry into the dam which may be predatory.
 Fertilize the dam regularly to keep the water green.
 Apply lime regularly to maintain the pH.
 De-silting regularly to maintain the water levels.
 Repairing broken/leaking dam walls.

Tank systems

This is an intensive culture system common in areas with limited fresh water.

The tanks can be made of concrete, fiber glass, marine plywood, metal, plastics or other hard materials
free from toxic chemicals.

Advantages:

 Easy to manage thus, suitable for experimental studies.

 Diseases are well controlled.
 Feeding and harvesting takes less time since fish are held in a small space.
 High stock densities are possible.
 It can be practiced indoor.
 Easy to control the environment and quality of water.
 Requires very small space.

Disadvantages:

 Requires a lot of capital investment to construct or buy tanks and refill them with water
periodically.
 Higher risks of mortality due to disease outbreak.
 Easily polluted with solid wastes concentrated at the bottom.
 Requires a lot of skills to manage.
 Disease outbreak may not be easy to manipulate.

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 Cage system.

This involves rearing of fish in cages enclosed in rivers, lakes and ponds.

The cages are usually circular, square or rectangular in shape.

The cages can be partially exposed or completely submerged under water.

They should be placed where water movement is minimum and where the security of the fish is
ensured.

Advantages:

 Requires very little maintenance and management.

 Fish are protected from predators.
 Requires very low investment.
 Fish suffers less from diseases.
 Constant water exchange inside and outside the cage provides good conditions for growth.

Disadvantages:

 Cages may be damaged by high wave current and floods.

 Adverse environmental changes such as pollution, extreme temperature and water level
changes are dangerous to fish cages.
 Requires technical skills to manage.

Pen system

This involves fencing off of parts of a lake or river or lagoon and stocking it with fish.

The fence prevents fish from swimming into the lake and fish are restricted to only a limited space in
the lake or river.

NB. The system has merits and demerits similar that those of cage system.

Fish ponds

A pond is a structure used to hold a body of water that may be standing or having a limited flow for
fish growth and development

Ponds may be constructed on earthly grounds or concrete and are the most widely used structures for
commercial fish farming.

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Earthen ponds are the most commonly used however, because they are; cheap, easily managed and
make use of natural feeds and water.

The water either passes through the pond once or it may be partially discharged and a total percentage
of water remains in the pond

Types of fish ponds

i). Embankment (Levee) Ponds;

This pond is built by construction of walls above the ground level to impound water.

There is no excavation of the ground.

It is difficult to fill with water but easy to drain.

ii). Excavated Ponds;

This is built by digging out the soil and the soil from the excavation is used to build an embankment or
levees for the pond.

It is easy to fill with water but difficult to drain.

iii). Ravine Ponds;

These are partially excavated ponds with low walls.

In this type of ponds, the soil from the excavation is used to build low walls of the pond.

The ideal site for this pond should have a slight slope so that the water supply channel can be
constructed slightly above the discharge channel.

In this case, pumping of water is neither needed for filling nor emptying the pond.

Advantages of Using Ponds:

 Can be constructed near homes for security against theft and predatory birds.
 They are easy and cheap to construct.
 Earth ponds provide cheap source of food for fish from planktons.
 Earth walls and bottom stop constant temperature changes of the pond water.
 Harvesting of fish is easy.

Disadvantages of using ponds:

 High initial costs make it expensive for local farmers.

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 They are prone to pollution especially excavated ponds i.e. from surface run off and floods.
 Ponds encourage production of weeds which may prevent growth of phytoplankton.
 May encourage muddy conditions which affect growth of phytoplankton.
 Silting and mud accumulation increases costs of maintenance.
 More labour is required in construction and maintenance.

How to build a pond

 The steps involved in pond establishment are

 Choose the site
 Prepare the site
 Dig the pond and prepare the dykes
 Build the inlet and the out let
 Protect the pond dykes
 Fertilize the pond
 Fence the pond
 Fill the pond with water
 Stock the fish

Sitting a fish pond

When choosing a site for pond construction, the following factors should be considered;

 Topography; it should be gently sloping to allow free water flow in and out of the pond.
 Soil type; the soil should be fertile and firm with high water holding capacity to be able to
hold water in the pond for long. Soil with a lot of clay contents is ideal.
 Water table; the site should have a high water table so as to reduce the cost of filling the
pond.
 Water supply and quality; the site should be near a permanent water source of good quality to
avoid death of stock due to toxics and encourage growth.
 Site accessibility; the site should be easily accessible for regular monitoring of the fish and
transportation to the market after harvesting.
 Security; should be near the farmer's house or homestead to ensure security against predators
and thieves.
 Freedom from pollution; the site should be free from toxic residues e.g. pesticides from crop
fields.
 The sun: choose a sunny place for your pond
 Orientation: it should be set up in an open place to maximize advantages of water mixing
 Usability of the area: choose a site that could not be better for something else

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 Distance from the market; it should be near the market as fish is highly perishable once
harvested before processing.

Preparing a site

 Clear the vegetation

 Mark out the big outer rectangle and mark the corners with pegs
 Mark out the smaller rectangle inside the bigger one
 Mark out the smaller third area inside your pond about 2metres less and this will be the center
area

Procedure of constructing a pond

 Clear the site off vegetation, tree stumps and stones.

 Mark out the area of the pond with pegs before digging out the top soil.
 Dig out the soils from the marked area and separate the top soil from the sub soil. While
digging, start with the inner most small marked rectangle and proceed to the outer rectangles
 The top soil should be separated from the rest of the soil as it is refilled at the pond base after
excavation
 The depth of the pond is usually 1.0 to 1.5m at the outlet and 0.5 to 0.8m at the inlet, giving
the base a slanting floor to allow easy drainage of the pond.
 Use the sub soil to build the pond walls.
 Compact the soil while pilling around the banks to make a firm, leak-proof wall.
 Fix inlet and outlet pipes within the walls to allow water to move in and out of the pond
respectively.
 Spread a layer of lime on the pond floor about 15 days to filling the pond with water to
maintain the pH of water.
 Spread the top soil over the pond walls and plant the walls with grass to prevent wall erosion
by rain water.
 Fill the pond with clean water after about two weeks.

Maintenance of a fish pond

 Planting grass over the wall to stabilize the walls and prevent them from being eroded by
rainfall.
 Fencing the pond area to keep away farm animals that may damage the pond walls.
 Fertilizing the pond regularly encourage the growth of algae and phytoplankton which are a
natural source of food for fish.

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 Liming the pond regularly to maintain the pH of pond water. Optimum pH for most fish
species is between 6.5 to 9.0
 Draining of exhausted water and refilling with clean and oxygenated water regularly.
 De-silting of the pond regularly to maintain the pond depth.
 Clearing over grown vegetation around the pond to control predators like snakes, toads, wild
fish etc.
 Controlling algal bloom and weeds to ensure ample supply of light and oxygen by removing
those in excess.
 Cementing the walls to avoid leakages.
 Cutting trees from the ponds to avoid their roots cracking the walls.
 Get rid of frogs, tortoise, rats and snakes that may kill the fish
 Ponds should be separated from a crop land by turf burrier
 Place bamboo poles or branches of tress in the pond to make netting impossible and reduce
theft
 Do not use your pond as a water source to avoid draining it
 Be sure the screens are in place such that the fish do not get away
 Ensure that the pond is full of water to the recommended levels
 Provide artificial reefs e.g. peeled tress to enable young fish hide from predators
 Provide breeding grounds through the pond to encourage fish spawning e.g. sand and gravel
4-6 inches thick contained within a frame of box placed along the shore line of the pond
 Keep close observation of the pond for any changes I the behavior of the fish and take
recommended actions
 Remove dead floating fish from the pond
 Avoid over feeding of the fish. Feeding should be done in accordance with the fish response
to feeds
 Provide artificial aeration of the pond to reduce death of fish due to suffocation

ROUTINE FISH MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

They include;

 Selection of fish to culture.

 Stocking and re-stocking of the pond.
 Feeding of the fish.
 Control of predators.
 Water quality and quantity management.
 Pests and disease control.
 Fish sexing.
 Harvesting and processing of fish.
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 Fish preservation.
 Sorting and grading of fish.
 Record keeping.

Selection of fish species for culturing

This involves choosing the fish species which are suitable for rearing in a given environment.

The following factors should be considered when choosing fish species to culture;

 Adaptability to restricted environment of the pond, tank, cages or raceways.

 High growth rate.
 High efficiency in utilizing feeds.
 Adaptation to crowded environment.
 High breeding ability
 High commercial value (marketability).
 Resistance to stress and diseases.
 Availability of fish seeds for rearing in the area.

Stocking and re-stocking of the pond

This is the act of introducing fish into the pond.

Stocking Rate: Is the number of fish in a unit area of a pond

The higher the number of young fish stocked in a pond, the higher the expected yield at harvesting
under ideal conditions.

Stocking rate can be increased by Poly-culture; the culture of different species of fish with different
food habits in the same pond.

It may also involve stocking of different age groups of the same species provided the species has
different food habits at different stages of growth.

Factors that affect the stocking rate of a fish pond

 Fish species; different species have different behavior thus, demand different floor space.
 Rate of reproduction; low stocking rate is recommended for species which multiply very fast
as opposed to those that multiply slowly.
 The size and weight of fish; larger fish require relatively more space than smaller fish of the
same species.
 Water quality; in terms of metabolite contamination and oxygen supply, the better the quality,
the higher the stocking rate.

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 The growth rate of fish and the period of time the fish takes to mature; very faster rates of
growth with shorter maturity time allows higher stocking density than slow rate of growth
with longer maturity time.
 Level of management of the pond; e.g. supplementary feeding, fertilization etc. thus, the
higher the level of management, the higher the stocking rate due to improved growth
conditions.

Carrying Capacity: This is the number of fish stock of the same or different species that a given pond
can support for a given period of time.

This may be limited by factors like;

 Oxygen supply.
 Rate of accumulation of waste products.
 Availability of food.
 Size of the pond.

How to Maintain Optimum Fish Population in a Pond:

 Stocking of the pond with single sex of fish.

 Selling of fry to other farmers.
 Stocking a predator with the fish to eat the young fish produced.
 Early harvesting of mature fish.

Procedure of introducing of fish into a pond

 Obtain fry (i.e. small, recently hatched fish) or Fingerlings (i.e. young fish about 10cm long)
from a reliable source such as fish breeding stations for the new pond.
 Transport them in water contained in a plastic bag or oil drum.
 Make sure that the pond water has the same temperature as the container water before putting
the fish in the pond.
 Young fish often die of shock, especially if they are introduced into hotter or colder ponds.
 Gently lower the bag or container into the pond and allow the young fish to swim out
voluntarily.
 Do not force them out of the container or pour them into the pond to avoid death due to shock.
 Introduce the right number of young fish into the pond.

WATER QUALITY & QUANTIY MANAGEMENT

Optimum water level is important for growth of fish. Water levels in the pond may drop due to leakage
of pond bottom and walls or at the drain pipes.

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Repair cracks on the walls and refill with clean water.

Besides, the farmer has to check if;

 The water is very clear; then the farmer may have to fertilize the pond because there are not
enough nutrients in the water.
 The water is very muddy; then the farmer will have to settle it before it is used in the pond.
 The water is bright green; it probably contains a lot of fish food in it.
 The water is dark or smelly brown; it may have acids in it and the farmer will have to add lime
in the water.

Liming and fertilization of ponds

Fertilization: This is the periodic addition of organic manures or inorganic fertilizers into the pond to
increase the nutrient content of the pond and encourage growth of phytoplankton to supply food to fish.

However, the use of organic manure may have a negative effect of reducing the oxygen concentration
in the pond as decomposition of organic residues requires oxygen thus, competing with fish for the
available oxygen.

Lime must be supplied evenly in the pond as possible over the entire pond every 3-5 years

Benefits of liming include:

 Raising the pH and alkalinity of acid waters to desired levels

 Raises the Ph of mud bottom to desired levels and constantly reduce the ability of the mud to
absorb nutrients like phosphorus
 Liming creates more suitable environment for microbial growth and accelerates
decomposition and mineralization of organic matter in the sediments
 Liming serves as a direct source of soluble calcium for pond food organisms by raising
alkalinity and hardness of water

SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING

This is the provision of food from external sources to fish in the pond to increase yield.

Fish in the ponds obtain their food from natural resources such as algae, planktons, small animals and
insects.

However, this may be insufficient for fish thus, reducing yield; the need for supplementary/additional
feeding.

Examples of supplementary feeds for pond fish include;

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 Grass or leaves from common tropical crops e.g. cassava.

 Grains and pulses e.g. rice mill, maize mill, soya bean wastes.
 Milling by-products such as cotton seed cake, ground nut cake.
 Formulated diet of mixed concentrates.

Precaution taken when feeding fish

 Feeding should be done in the late morning of early afternoon when dissolved oxygen levels
are high
 Do not over feed the fish as too much feeds will decay and use up oxygen in the pond
 Stop feeding fish atleast one day before breeding, harvesting or transporting them stress from
the identified activities increase wastes from animals that make water turbine
 If the fish do not consume all the feeds, feed less in the next day
 Feeding is done following response room the fish. If the response is low, stop feeding and if
the response is high the feeds should be increased in amount

Signs of over feeding

 Presence of feed left over in the pond.

 Foul smell of pond water when the bottom is stirred.
 Plenty of phytoplankton since fish cannot consume it due to too much artificial food.
 High reproduction rate.

Signs of under feeding

 Clear water indicating absence of phytoplankton.

 Reduced rate of growth and weight gain.
 Reduced reproduction rate.
 Increase in the rate of cannibalism.
 Starvation and death of fish.

Feeding different stages of fish development

i). Larvae.

These possess yolk sac and do not need external food.

They require oxygen and removal of physiological wastes.

ii) Fry

The larvae which have finished utilizing the yolk sac develop into Fry.

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They have functioning alimentary canal.

They should be fed on processed feeds, rich in proteins and in powder form.

They can also be nursed in green water to provide natural food.

iii). Fingerlings.

From one week onwards, the fry develop into Fingerlings.

Green water nursing and supplementary feeding should be maintained for 2 to 3 months.

This produces Fingerlings that can adapt to new habitats.

They will also grow fast and attain table size in about 6 months of good management.

iv). Table size fish.

The level of supplementary feeding should be increased to match with the increased body weight of
fish.

Fish should be fed 3 times their body weight daily.

SEXING OF FISH

This is important in controlling stock rates in ponds by controlling fish breeding. The sex can be
determined more easily in brood and adult fish which have developed fully.

For Tilapia;

The males:

 Have only one opening into the cloaca.

 When the abdomen is pressed gently, thin watery milt is releases (fish semen).
 The body is darker in colour and the tips of most fins are reddish in colour.

The females:

 Have two openings, the cloaca and genital papilla.

 When the abdomen is pressed gently, milky fluid comes out.
 The navel is short or small.
 Sometimes eggs come out when the abdomen is pressed.
 The body is lighter in colour and the fins are less coloured at the tips.

CONTROL OF POND ENVIRONMENT

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This is aimed at keeping the oxygen level and pH of the pond water at optimum or tolerable limits for
fish species cultured.

For proper growth, fish require adequate supply of oxygen for respiration and pH of 6.5 to 9.0.

Indicators of low oxygen levels in the pond

 Fish suddenly stop feeding.

 Fish swim at or near the surface gasping.
 Dead fish with open mouth and raised gill covers.
 High turbidity of the water.

Causes of a decrease in the amount of oxygen in the pond

 High rates of respiration from fish due to over stocking.

 Over fertilization of the pond, encouraging algal bloom which makes a mat over the water
surface, interfering with oxygen diffusion.
 Muddy or turbid conditions of the pond; preventing sunlight from reaching bottom plants.
 Cloudy days that reduce sunlight energy and photosynthesis.
 Dense vegetation in and around the pond that use atmospheric oxygen at night.
 High pond temperature, which decreases oxygen holding capacity of water.
 Limited wind to stir up water and increase oxygen diffusion.
 Lack of fresh water flowing into the pond to replenish oxygen and carry away metabolites.
 Over-staying of water in the pond.
 Oil spills from automotive; covering the pond water surface, prevents oxygen diffusion.

How to increase oxygen supply in the pond

 Replacing old water regularly with fresh water.

 Flushing in of fresh oxygenated water.
 Using aerators which splash water in the air to mix with atmospheric oxygen.
 Application of only inorganic fertilizers during pond fertilization. This is because, organic
manure decomposition use oxygen which reduces oxygen supply in the pond.
 Clearing of vegetation on the wind ward side to increase stirring of water and diffusion of
atmospheric oxygen.
 Allowing some fresh water from the stream to continuously pass through the pond.
 Introducing some water plants into the pond to produce oxygen during photosynthesis.
 By pumping artificially made oxygen into the pond in mechanized farms.
 Keeping the right number of fish in the pond to prevent rapid oxygen depletion.
 Keeping the water at recommended level.
 De-silting to reduce the muddy conditions.
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Characteristics of a good pond for fish farming

 Pond depth: should be 0.5-1.0m at the shallow side and 1.5-2.0m at the deep side
 Should be rectangular in shape
 Drainage gate valves should be provided. Draining should note take more than three days
 The dykes should be sufficient and wide enough to allow moving.
 Grass should be planted at all dykes to control erosion
 Size; it should be large enough to accommodate a big number of fish
 Orientation. It should be located in an open space to take advantage of mixing water by wind
 Dykes should be high enough to prevent fish from jumping out of the pond
 Should have permanent water volume maintained throughout the year
 The bottom of the pond should slop gently from the upper end to the deepest part
 The inside of the bank should slope less steeply than the outside
 The bottom of the pond should be fairly smooth and regular to make it easy for sliding the
nets during harvesting
 The bottom should be free from loose soil and other trash
 The inlet pipe should be long enough to reach the of the bank from one side to another
 There should be a ditch to take away the water when you empty the point
 The screens should be placed outside the pond for the inlet pipe and inside the pond for the
outlet and overflow pipes

Factors affecting pond productivity

 Soil texture: very sandy and clay bottoms are not desirable as nutrients are lost due to leaching
and fixation respectively
 Soil reaction (pH): a slightly alkaline ensures availability of native of native phosphorus hence
making a pond productive. Fish are stressed in water with pH ranging from 4.0 -6.5 and 9.0-
11.o. growth is lower when pH is below 4.5
 Hardness of the water: hard water contain a lot of calcium and phosphorus essential for fish
growth
 Nutrients: a pond containing a balanced supply of both macro and micro nutrients ensures
proper growth of the fish. Fertilization is important to increase on the productivity of the pond
 Temperature: low temperature cause mortality and stress and also increases chances of fungal
diseases. At low temperature, metabolism is low hence slow growth
 Pond depth: shallow ponds are more productive due to high interactions between the
sediments, water and light penetration
 Turbidity; high turbidity levels reduces sight and so the ability of the fish to find food.

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 Stalinization: increase in the salinity levels of the pond in arid areas due to dissolved salts
being leached out of the rock and industrial wastes reduce their productivity
 Pollution and eutrophication: pollution from pesticides may cause fish kills and wastes cause
increase in plant growth which may lead to death of fish
 Water circulation: this reduces accumulation of wastes at the bottom of the pond that could
decompose and reduce the levels of dissolved oxygen
 Dissolved oxygen: the pond productivity is high when the BDO is high
 Species composition: pond productivity is increased when different fish species are raised
together
 Weeds: these cause night time oxygen depletion, compete with planktons for nutrients and
cause stunted growth in fish
 Fertility of the pond: fertile ponds are more productive and they produce more phytoplankton
that support a big population of fish
 Water levers; reduction in water levels cause loss of nutrients and reduce the number of fish
reared per pond

FISH HEALTH MANAGEMENT

Fish diseases

Fish are vulnerable to diseases when environmental conditions such as water quality, food availability
and dissolved oxygen are poor. Once the disease enters the pond, it will be difficult to eradicate. Some
the early warning symptoms of fish suffering from disease or parasite infections are:

 Discoloration of the fish

 Open sores on the fish body
 Abnormal shape, swollen areas, abnormal lumps or Popeye’s
 Bleeding
 Small black or white spots
 Low growth rate
 Fish not eating as usual.
 Fish swimming sluggishly and become less responsive to external stimuli.
 Fish swimming on the sides or upside down.
 Fish floating on the surface gulping.

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 Impaired gills.
 Presence of dead or dying fish in the water.
 Fish continuously rubbing itself against objects.
 Hemorrhages, ulcers, popping eye balls and swollen abdomen.

Prevention of diseases is achieved through;

 Good water quality management.

 Maintaining stocking rates at optimum.
 Use of disease free seeds during stocking.
 Good feeding and proper nutritional balance to avoid causing stress
 Exclude wild fish from the pond
 Putting up good sanitary measures.
 Never supply a pond with water from another pond since it may transmit diseases
 Properly handle the fish to avoid stressing them
 New fish into the pond should be kept in a separate pond until certain that they do not contain
diseases
 Proper observation fish for any changes in normal behaviour and take the appropriate
measures in the control situation

Control of diseases in fish

 Flushing of the pond with clean fresh water

 Pump out stale/ bottom water
 Aerate surface water
 Remove dead and dying fish
 Remove decomposing weeds and organic matter
 Stop feeding the fish and fertilize the pond

FISH PREDATOR CONTROL

The major predators of farmed fish include;

 Fish eating birds.

 Wild fish that are predatory e.g. cat fish.
 Frogs and toads.
 Eels.
 Snakes.

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 Fish eating bats.

 Monitor lizards etc.

The effects of predators on farmed fish include;

 They eat up fish causing death.

 They feed on eggs and larvae of fish.
 They also consume fish feeds causing starvation.
 May be a source of infections to the fish.
 They release metabolites which accumulate reducing the water quality in the pond.

Control of Fish Predators:

 Fencing off the ponds to deny entry.

 Use of traps for large ones.
 Use of screens at the inlet to deny entry of some predators.
 Covering the top of the ponds with nets to control birds.
 Clearing the bushes around the pond to deny them breeding grounds.

HARVESTING OF FISH

This is the removal of fish from the pond ready for marketing or stocking.

It can be done at different times, depending on the purpose for which the fish is to be used e.g. as fry or
Fingerlings for stocking or as table fish.

Fish species like tilapia reaches maturity at 12 months, carp at 18 months.

Methods of Harvesting Fish from the Pond:

It’s done after six months if the fish are big enough for sale or consumption. There are two methods of
harvesting that includes

 Selective culling: The big fish are harvested and the small one is left in the pond to continue
growing. It’s done throughout the year. This can be achieved by;
 Use of Hooks; A hook or series of baited hooks are used to lour and capture fish as it
tries to swallow the bait. The hook pierces and gets tuck into the mouth of the fish. It
is used for small scale fishing and tends to wound the fish and does not discriminate
on the size of fish.

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 Use of Seine nets; a net of desirable size is dragged through the pond bottom to catch
fish in the pond. The net may be suspended in water and fish trying to pass through
the mesh are trapped by their gills and entangle themselves in the net.
 Taking out of fish in the pond at once: Pond water is drained out completely and the
preferred fish picked into the baskets. This is achieved following the procedure below:
 Water level is lowered slowly by opening the outlet pipe
 Plates slatted boxes at the outlet pipe to avoid escape of fish
 After emptying fish can be handpicked from the pond. Ensure proper harvesting to
avoid damages to the fish
 After harvesting, let the pond dry out until the bottom cracks. This help to kill weeds
and animals in the pond bottom
 The pond is later refilled with clean water.

Precautions when harvesting fingerlings

 Harvest during cool hours of the day especially, morning hours.

 Select harvesting methods that will not bruise the fish e.g. use of seine nets.
 Disinfect the holding equipment and water to prevent diseases.
 Avoid excessive muddy conditions of the water.
 The Fingerlings should immediately be placed in storage facility with adequate aeration.
 Grade the Fingerlings to ensure uniformity of size.
 Fingerlings should not be held out of water for long as they require a lot of oxygen.

POST HARVEST HANDLING OF FISH

Fish processing and preservation

Fresh fish are highly perishable/deteriorates rapidly once dead leading to spoilage hence requires good
hygiene and quick preservation/processed as soon as possible to prevent bacteria that cause spoilage.

Fish processing involves;

 Removal of scales.
 Removal of gills and viscera.
 Cleaning with water.
 In some cases, removal of skins and fleshing to obtain fish fillet.

The bones and fins are processed into fish meals for livestock.

Fish preservation involves treatment of processed fish prevent spoilage and increase shelf life.

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The methods used to preserve fish include;

 Freezing and chilling/cooling: this keep the fish temperature too low for the bacteria to
 Smoking: smoke is toxic to many bacteria.
 Fermentation: this method is expensive but the fish ordure and test are radically changed
 Salting. This makes the fish highly concentrated that the bacteria’s loose water and are
killed. There is reasonable preservation of fish nutrients by salting
 Drying: this makes the conditions unfavorable for the bacteria. Under good storage,
nutrients are preserved
 Canning: the fish is sealed in airtight containers after other treatments to kill bacteria. It’s
an expensive method as it requires a lot of energy and water

Fish kills and their causes

 Fish dies as a result of wide variety of natural and man make causes that includes
 Old age of the fish
 Starvation and poor feeding
 Infected woods from terrestrial fighting as males defend their nesting habitant
 Stress caused by rough handling
 Algae blooms which consume a lot of oxygen from the pond causing suffocation
 Weed control by use of herbicides which toxic to fish hence death
 Water pollution from environmental wastes i.e. decaying organic matter; pollutants from
industries reduce oxygen and cause death to fish
 Fish diseases and parasites stress fish. Diseases are caused by bacteria, viruses and protozoa
 Predation like tortes and snakes kill fish for food
 Severe weather condition like too much coldness or extreme temperatures can cause death
 Poor pond turn over limited oxygen supply to the bottom waters and cause death to fish as the
top water heats up faster and becomes light, it does not mix with the bottom water which
becomes stagnant
 High levels of hydrogen sulphide gas at the pond bottom cause death
 Salty water from septic systems, livestock salt likes, old abandoned oil fields can enter the
pond and cause death to fish

WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL

Weeds in the pond may make harvesting of fish difficult and act as hiding grounds for predators.
Therefore weed invasion in the pond call for need to be controlled. This can be achieved by use of
preventive measures, biological methods and herbicides

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Biological control of weeds can be effected by stocking the pond with vegetable eating fish species or
herbicides can be used at lower concentrations e.g. sodium arsenate, sodium chlorate, 2,4-D and
Dalapon.

Aquatic plants have some positive value in the fish pond that includes

 Furnishes habitant for some small aquatic animals

 Provide small fish with hiding grounds
 They add DO into the water
 They provide spawning and nesting for fish and water fowls
 Uses up excessive chemicals from the pond water and reduce on their toxic levels
 Some like water lily are sold and planted to provide floral beauty to garden ponds

Problems caused by weeds

 Limit space for fish to live

 Remove nutrients from the pond reducing phytoplankton growth
 Restrict recreation such as swimming and boating in large ponds
 Dense growth of weeds limits night oxygen and cause fish death
 Causes abad smell in water and so my change the smell of fish
 Some change the test of drinking water
 Too much cover of weeds discourage predation hence a high population growth of fish in the
pond
 They block irrigation and drainage channels
 Some aquatic weeds encourage presence of harmful organisms such as snakes

Factor that encourage invasion of weeds

 Shallow water conditions enable faster rooting

 Clear water that enables faster penetration of sun light
 Excessive fertility in the pond encourage growth of weeds

Weeds in the fish pond

They are categorized into four groups according to the habitant in which they are usually found. They
include floating weeds, emerged (above the water), submersed (under water) and algae

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Algae

These plants occur in most all parts of the water. They do not produce flowers and seed and based upon
size and shape, algae can be grouped into, microscopic (planktonic), filamentous, stoneworts and
pithophora (algae)

Floating weeds

These float on or in the water and obtain their nutrients from the water and not the soil, they are not
attached to the pond bottom, they include duckweeds (lemnaceae Spp), water hyacinth (eichhornia
crassipes), and bladderwort (utricularia Spp)

Submerged weeds

They grow under water up to the level of the water surface. They have seed heads which extend above
the surface and may be confused with immersed water weeds. However most are dependent on water
for support and nutrients

They include naiads (Najas Spp), water milfoil (Myriophyllum Spp) and pond weeds (Potamegeton
Spp)

Methods of weed control

Preventive measures

 Pond location: avoid locating ponds in areas with excessive water shed or source of organic
pollutants

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 Pond construction: the pond should be atleast 2m deep to discourage weed growth
 Fertilization: proper fertilization encourage froth of desirable algae that limit light penetration
to the bottom hence limiting growth of weeds
 Liming before fertilization encourages blooms and discourage weeds
 Periodically lower the water levers in the bond to expose the bottom and enable it to dry
 Constructing ponds with deep slops that fall quickly into the deep water to prevent weeds
from rooting
 Construction of sediment basin upstream of the pond will trap out sediments and maintain soil
depth
 Control of soil erosion to maintain soil depth
 Avoid adding grass clipping into the pond to avoid introducing weeds
 Minimize feeding of fish as un eaten feeds decompose and release nutrients to the pond hence
weed growth
 Fence live stock from ponds to minimize addition of manure into the pond

Mechanical methods

 Cutting of developed weeds from the pond

 Seining or raking of water weeds more especially in small ponds
 Sun screening of the pond to minimize sunlight
 Covering the pond bottom lining
 Dredging and deepening of the pond
 Weed harvesting by hand pulling

Biological method

A living agent, whether it be fish, insect, bacterial which attacks aquatic weeds can be used. They
include snails, Cray fish, tadpole, turtles, ducks, geese etc.

Chemical weed control

Involve the use of aquatic herbicides and chemical dyes which are not toxic to water and can be used to
colour the water and reduce weed growth

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Common aquatic weeds include; chelated copper compounds, flouridone (sonar), 2, 4-D, glyphosphate
(redeo, pondmaster), Diquet and Endothall

Aquatic water dyes include; analine, nigrosine and aqua-shade

Disadvantages of herbicides

 Toxic to man and need special skills to handle

 Expensive to buy
 May cause fish death
 Retreatment of eater is necessary before it can be used
 Water use restriction in most localities may make it illegal to use weed herbicides
 Test and odour of water may be changed after the application of herbicides

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