Basics of Geometry

Basic Geometry Concepts 1. Point: A point is a location in a plane. 2. Line: A line is an infinite set of points contained in a straight path. 3. Line Segment: A line segment is part of a line; a segment can be measured. 4. Ray: A ray is an infinite set of points that start at an endpoint and continue in a straight path in one direction only. 5. Plane: A plane is a two-dimensional flat surface. 6. Angle: An angle is the figure formed by two rays sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. The magnitude of the angle is the "amount of rotation" that separates the two rays, and can be measured by considering the length of circular arc swept out when one ray is rotated about the vertex to coincide with the other.

Angles are measured in degree () and radians. Types of angles

1. An angle of 90 (/2 radians, or one-quarter of the full circle) is called a right angle. Two lines that form a right angle are said to be perpendicular or orthogonal.

2. Angles that are not right angles or a multiple of a right angle are called oblique angles. 3. Angles smaller than a right angle (less than 90) are called acute angles ("acute" meaning "sharp").e.g. angle a in figure below. 4. Angles larger than a right angle and smaller than two right angles (between 90 and 180) are calledobtuse angles ("obtuse" meaning "blunt"). e.g. angle b in figure below.

5. Angles equal to two right angles (180) are called straight angles. 6. Angles larger than two right angles but less than a full circle (between 180 and 360) are calledreflex angles. see figure below.

7. Two angles opposite each other, formed by two intersecting straight lines that form an "X"-like shape, are called vertical angles or opposite angles. These angles are equal in size.

8. Angles that share a common vertex and edge but do not share any interior points are called adjacent angles. 9. Two angles that sum to one right angle (90) are called complementary angles. The difference between an angle and a right angle is termed the complement of the angle. 10. Two angles that sum to a straight angle (180) are called supplementary angles. The difference between an angle and a straight angle is termed the supplement of the angle. 11. Two angles that sum to one full circle (360) are called explementary angles or conjugate angles.

Triangles
A triangle is one of the basic shapes of geometry: a polygon with three corners or vertices and three sides or edges which are line segments. A triangle with vertices A, B, and C is denoted ABC.
Types of Triangles

Triangles can be classified according to relative length of the sides and by internal angles. By relative lengths of sides

In an equilateral triangle, all sides have the same length. An equilateral triangle is also a regular polygon with all angles measuring 60. In an isosceles triangle, two sides are equal in length. An isosceles triangle also has two angles of the same measure; namely, the angles opposite to the two sides of the same length. In a scalene triangle, all sides and internal angles are different from one another

By internal angles

A right triangle (or right-angled triangle) has one of its interior angles measuring 90 (a right angle). The side opposite to the right

angle is the hypotenuse; it is the longest side in the right triangle. The other two sides are the legs of the triangle. Right triangles obey the Pythagorean theorem: the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two legs is equal to the square of the length of the hypotenuse: a2 + b2 = c2, where a and b are the lengths of the legs and c is the length of the hypotenuse. Special right triangles are right triangles with additional properties that make calculations involving them easier. Triangles that do not have an angle that measures 90 are called oblique triangles. A triangle that has all interior angles measuring less than 90 is an acute triangle or acute-angled triangle. A triangle that has one angle that measures more than 90 is an obtuse triangle or obtuse-angled triangle. A triangle that has two angles with the same measure also has two sides with the same length, and therefore it is an isosceles triangle.

Basic facts about Triangles An exterior angle of a triangle is an angle that is a linear pair (and hence supplementary) to aninterior angle. The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of the two interior angles that are not adjacent to it (exterior angle theorem). The sum of the measures of the three exterior angles (one for each vertex) of any triangle is 360 degrees. Triangle inequality: The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle always exceeds the length of the third side. Two triangles that are under a correspondence are said to be similar if every angle of one triangle has the same measure as the corresponding angle in the other triangle and the corresponding sides have lengths that are in the same proportion. In a right triangle, the acute angles of a right triangle are complementary. If the legs of a right triangle have the same length, then the angles opposite those legs have the same measure. Since these angles are complementary, it follows that each measures 45 degrees. By the Pythagorean theorem, the length of the hypotenuse is the length of a leg times 2.

In a right triangle with acute angles measuring 30 and 60 degrees, the hypotenuse is twice the length of the shorter side, and the longer side is equal to the length of the shorter side times 3.

Area of Triangle

Area of Triangle S = 1/2 x b x h where S is area, b is the length of the base of the triangle, and h is the height or altitude of the triangle. The term 'base' denotes any side, and 'height' denotes the length of a perpendicular from the point opposite the side onto the side itself.

Points, lines and circles associated with a triangle

Circumcenter: A perpendicular bisector of a triangle is a straight line passing through the midpoint of a side and being perpendicular to it, i.e. forming a right angle with it. The three perpendicular bisectors meet in a single point, the triangle's circumcenter; this point is the center of the circumcircle, the circle passing through all three vertices. If the circumcenter is located on one side of the triangle, then the opposite angle is a right one. More is true: if the circumcenter is located inside the triangle, then the triangle is acute; if the circumcenter is located outside the triangle, then the triangle is obtuse.

Orthocenter: An altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and perpendicular to (i.e. forming a right angle with) the opposite side. This opposite side is called the base of the altitude, and the point where the altitude intersects the base (or its extension) is called the foot of the altitude. The length of the altitude is the distance between the base and the vertex. The three altitudes intersect in a single point, called

the orthocenter of the triangle. The orthocenter lies inside the triangle if and only if the triangle is acute.

Incircle: An angle bisector of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex which cuts the corresponding angle in half. The three angle bisectors intersect in a single point, the incenter, the center of thetriangle's incircle. The incircle is the circle which lies inside the triangle and touches all three sides. There are three other important circles, the excircles; they lie outside the triangle and touch one side as well as the extensions of the other two.

Median: A median of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite side, and divides the triangle into two equal areas. The three medians intersect in a single point, thetriangle's centroid. The centroid of a stiff triangular object (cut out of a thin sheet of uniform density) is also its center of gravity: the object can be balanced on its centroid. The centroid cuts every median in the ratio 2:1, i.e. the distance between a vertex and the centroid is twice the distance between the centroid and the midpoint of the opposite side.

Circles
Definitions

A circle is a simple shape consisting of those points in a plane which are the same distance from a given point called the centre. The common distance of the points of a circle from its center is called itsradius. The diameter is a line segment that connects two points on the circle and goes through the center of the circle. It is always twice as long as the radius. A chord is any line segment whose endpoints are any two points on the circle. The circumference of a circle is the distance around the circle. The Tangent is a line which touches the circumference at only one point. A tangent is always perpendicular to a radius or diameter which touches the circumference in the same place. A secant is an extended chord: a straight line cutting the circle at two points. An arc of a circle is any connected part of the circle's circumference. A sector is a region bounded by two radii and an arc lying between the radii, and a segment is a region bounded by a chord and an arc lying between the chord's endpoints.

Formulae

The ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter is (pi), a constant that takes the same value (approximately 3.1416) for all circles. Thus the length of the circumference (c) is related to the radius (r) by c = 2r or c = d Area of circle = r2 =d2/4 Length of an Arc = circumference x angle of arc/360 Sector Area = Area of circle x angle of sector / 360
Properties

Circle properties

The circle is the shape with the largest area for a given length of perimeter. The circle is a highly symmetric shape: every line through the center forms a line of reflection symmetry and it has rotational symmetry around the center for every angle. All circles are similar. A circle's circumference and radius are proportional. The area enclosed and the square of its radius are proportional. The constants of proportionality are 2 and , respectively. The circle centered at the origin with radius 1 is called the unit circle. Thought of as a great circle of the unit sphere, it becomes the Riemannian circle. Through any three points, not all on the same line, there lies a unique circle.

Chord properties

Chords are equidistant from the center of a circle if and only if they are equal in length. The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the center of a circle. A perpendicular line from the center of a circle bisects the chord. The line segment (circular segment) through the center bisecting a chord is perpendicular to the chord. If a central angle and an inscribed angle of a circle are subtended by the same chord and on the same side of the chord, then the central angle is twice the inscribed angle. If two angles are inscribed on the same chord and on the same side of the chord, then they are equal. If two angles are inscribed on the same chord and on opposite sides of the chord, then they are supplemental. For a cyclic quadrilateral, the exterior angle is equal to the interior opposite angle. An inscribed angle subtended by a diameter is a right angle. The diameter is the longest chord of the circle.

Tangent properties
The line drawn perpendicular to a radius through the end point of the radius is a tangent to the circle. A line drawn perpendicular to a tangent through the point of contact with a circle passes through the center of the circle. Two tangents can always be drawn to a circle from any point outside the circle, and these tangents are equal in length. Theorems The chord theorem states that if two chords, CD and EB, intersect at A, then CADA = EABA. If a tangent from an external point D meets the circle at C and a secant from the external point D meets the circle at G and E respectively, then DC2 = DGDE. (Tangent-secant theorem.) If two secants, DG and DE, also cut the circle at H and F respectively, then DHDG = DFDE. (Corollary of the tangent-secant theorem.) The angle between a tangent and chord is equal to the subtended angle on the opposite side of the chord. (Tangent chord property) If the angle subtended by the chord at the center is 90 degrees then l = 2 r, where l is the length of the chord and r is the radius of the circle. If two secants are inscribed in the circle as shown at right, then the measurement of angle A is equal to one half the difference of the measurements of the enclosed arcs (DE and BC). This is the secantsecant theorem.

Trigonometry
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that deals with triangles. Trigonometry deals with relationships between the sides and the angles of triangles and with the trigonometric functions, which describe those relationships.
Trigonometry Basics

If one angle of a triangle is 90 degrees and one of the other angles is known, the third is thereby fixed, because the three angles of any triangle add up to 180 degrees. The two acute angles therefore add up to 90 degrees: they are complementary angles. The shape of a right triangle is completely determined, up to similarity, by the angles. This means that once one of the other angles is known, the ratios of the various sides are always the same regardless of the overall size of the triangle. These ratios are given by the following trigonometric functions of the known angle A, where a, b and c refer to the lengths of the sides in the accompanying figure:

The sine function (sin), defined as the ratio of the side opposite the angle to the hypotenuse. sin A = a/c The cosine function (cos), defined as the ratio of the adjacent leg to the hypotenuse. cos A = b/c The tangent function (tan), defined as the ratio of the opposite leg to the adjacent leg. tan A = a/b = sin A/cos A The hypotenuse is the side opposite to the 90 degree angle in a right triangle; it is the longest side of the triangle, and one of the two sides adjacent to angle A. The adjacent leg is the other side that is adjacent to

angle A. The opposite side is the side that is opposite to angle A. The termsperpendicular and base are sometimes used for the opposite and adjacent sides respectively. The reciprocals of these functions are named the cosecant (csc or cosec), secant (sec) and cotangent (cot), respectively. The inverse functions are called the arcsine, arccosine, and arctangent, respectively.
Trigonometric Formulae

In the following formulae A, B and C are the angles of a triangle and a, b and c are the lengths of sides of the triangle opposite the respective angles. Law of Sines The law of sines for an arbitrary triangle states: a/sin A = b/sin B = c/sin C = 2R, where R is the radius of the circumcircle of the triangle: R = abc/sqrt((a+b+c)(a-b+c)(a+b-c)(b+c-a)) If We know two sides and the angle between the sides, the area of the triangle becomes: Area = 1/2abSin C Law of Cosines The law of cosines ( known as the cosine formula, or the "cos rule") is an extension of the Pythagorean theorem to arbitrary triangles: c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C or Cos C = a2 + b2 - c2/(2ab) Law of tangents The law of tangents is (a-b)/(a+b) = tan[(A-B)/2]/tan[(A+B)/2]

Mensuration

Mensuration Basics
Space Figure A space figure or three-dimensional figure is a figure that has depth in addition to width and height. Everyday objects such as a tennis ball, a box, a bicycle, and a redwood tree are all examples of space figures. Some common simple space figures include cubes, spheres, cylinders, prisms, cones, and pyramids. A space figure having all flat faces is called a polyhedron. A cube and a pyramid are both polyhedrons; a sphere, cylinder, and cone are not. Solids Solids are three-dimenisonal objects, bound by one or more surfaces. When plane surfaces bound a solid, they are called its faces. The lines of intersection of adjacent faces are called edges of the solid. For any regular solid with plane surfaces: Number of faces + Number of vertices = Number of edges + 2 This formula is called Eulers formula. Volume Volume of solid figure is the amount of space enclosed by its bounding surfaces. Volume is measured in cubic units. Weight of a solid = Volume x Density 1 cubic meter = 10 x 10 x 10 cubic cm = 1000 cubic cm
Rectangular Parallelepiped or Cuboid

A closed box composed of three pairs of rectangular faces placed opposite each other and joined at right angles to each other, also known as a rectangular parallelepiped. The cuboid is also a right prism, a special case of the parallelepiped, and corresponds to what in everyday parlance is known as a (rectangular) "box."

Let the lengths of the sides be denoted a, b, and c. A cuboid with all sides equal (a = b = c) is called a cube, and a cuboid with integer edge lengths a > b > c and face diagonals is called an Euler brick. If the space diagonal is also an integer, the cuboid is called a perfect cuboid. The volume of a cuboid is given by V = a b c and the total surface area is S = s(ab + bc + ca) The lengths of the face diagonals are dab =(a2 + b2) dac =(a2 + c2) dbc =(b2 + c2) and the length of the space diagonal is dabc =(a2 + b2 + c2)
Cube

A cube is a special case of a parallelepiped in which length, breadth and height are equal i.e. it is bound by six square faces.

It has 6 equal-area faces and 12 equal-length edges. If the length of one edge is l, the volume (V) of the cube is given by: V = l3 Its surface area (A) is calculated by finding the area of one square: l l = l2 ; and multiplying it by 6: 6 l2 A = 6l2
Prism

A prism is a solid figure with a uniform cross section. Here are some examples of prisms:

Rectangular based prism:

Prism

A prism is a solid figure with a uniform cross section. Here are some examples of prisms:

Rectangular based prism:

Circular based prism: (Cylinder)

Triangular based prism:

The surface area of any prism equals the sum of the areas of its faces, which include the floor, roof and walls. Because the floor and the roof of a prism have the same shape, the surface area can always be found as follows: Surface area of prism = 2 x area of base + perimeter of base x H Rectangular based Base shape: Rectangle, length 'L' Area of base: L Perimeter of base: Surface area = 2LW + 2(L+W)H Circular Base Area Perimeter Surface based Circle, of area of = base: base: 2R and width prism 'W' W 2(L+W)

shape:

radius +

prism 'R' R 2R 2RH

Triangular based prism Base shape: Triangle: base 'b', height 'h', and sides S1, S2 and S3 Area of base: bh Perimeter of base: S1+ S2 + S3 Surface area = bh + (S1+ S2 + S3)H
Right Circular Cylinder

The base and upper face of a right circular cylinder are equal circular regions lying in parallel planes. The perpendicular distance between these parallel faces is the height of the cylinder. volume = r2h curved surface area = 2rh Total surface area of a cylinder = 2r x (r + h) 2 Volume of cylindrical shell = h(R r2) Where R is the outer radius and r is the inner radious.

Right Circular Cone

A cone is a surface generated by a family of all lines through a given point (the vertex) and passing through a curve in a plane (the directrix). More commonly, a cone includes the solid enclosed by a cone and the plane of the directrix. The region of the plane enclosed by the directrix is called a base of the cone. The perpendicular distance from the vertex to the plane of the base is the height of the cone.

In a right circular cone, the axis is perpendicular to the base. (If the axis of a circular cone is not perpendicular to the base, it is called an oblique circular cone.) The length of any line segment connecting the vertex to the directrix is called the slant height of the cone. Area of Base: B Height: h Radius of base: r

Slant Lateral Total B s V= r h/3

2

height: surface surface Volume: = = area: area: = =

s S T V r2 2 (r +h2) rs r(r+s)

Frustum of a cone

The part of a right circular cone between the base and a plane parallel to the base whose distance from the base is less than the height of the cone. Height: Radius Slant Lateral Total Volume: s S T V= of surface surface = (R2+rR+r2)h/3 = = bases: height: r, area: area: h R s S T V

([R-r]2+h2) (r+R)s (r[r+s]+R[R+s])

Sphere

Volume V Surface S = 4r2

= = =

4/3r3 4/3r3 4r2

Hemisphere A sphere cut by a plane passing through its center forms two hemispheres. The plane surface of a hemisphere is a circular region. Curved surface area of a hemisphere = 2r2 2 Total surface area of a hemisphere = 2r + r2 = 3r2 Volume of a hemisphere = 2/3r2 Spherical shell If R and r are the outer and inner radius of a hollow sphere, then, Volume of the material in the spherical shell = 4/3R3- r3

Ratio and Proportion

Tutorial Ratio

A ratio is an expression that compares quantities relative to each other. The most common examples involve two quantities, but any number of quantities can be compared. Ratios are represented mathematically by separating each quantity with a colon, for example the ratio 2:3, which is read as the ratio "two to three". The quantities separated by colons are sometimes called terms. The quantities being compared in a ratio might be physical quantities such as speed or temperature, or may simply refer to amounts of particular objects. A common example of the latter case is the weight ratio of water to cement used in concrete, which is commonly stated as 1:4. This means that the weight of cement used is four times the weight of water used. It does not say anything about the total amounts of cement and water used, nor the amount of concrete being made.

A ratio of 2:3 means that the amount of the first quantity is 2/3 (two thirds) of the amount of the second quantity. If the ratio deals with objects or amounts of objects, this is often expressed as "for every two parts of the first quantity there are three parts of the second quantity".
Proportion

If the two or more ratio quantities encompass all of the quantities in a particular situation, for example two apples and three oranges in a fruit basket containing no other types of fruit, it could be said that "the whole" contains five parts, made up of two parts apples and three parts oranges. In this case, 2/5, or 40% of the whole are apples and 3/5, or 60% of the whole are oranges. This comparison of a specific quantity to "the whole" is sometimes called a proportion. Proportions are sometimes expressed as percentages.
Ration & Proportion Properties

1. Two quantities are said to be commensurable if their ratio can be expressed as the ratio of two integers. e.g. ratio of 10 and 12 = 10/12 = 5/6 therefore they are commensurable 2. If a:b and c:d a:b>c:d < c:d are if if two ad ratio < then ad>bc bc

a:b a:b=c:d if ad=bc 3. A ratio a:b is of

i) greater inequality if a > b ii) lesser inequality if a < b iii) equality if a = b 4. i) Compounded ratios are formed if two or more ratios are multiplied term wise. e.g. 2:3 x 4:5 becomes 2x4 : 3x5 i.e. 8 : 15 ii) Duplicate ratio of a : b is a^2: b^2 iii) Triplicate ratio of a : b is a^3 : b^3 5. Invertendo

If a:b=c:d a:b=c:d i.e. a/b = c/d

then

b:a

d:c

Dividing 1 by each of these ratios, 1/(a/b) = 1/(c/d) i.e. b/a = d/c or b:a = d:c 6. Alternendo If a/b = c/d, multiplying both sides by b/c we get a/b x b/c = c/d x b/c a/c = b/d or a:c = b:d 7. Componendo If a:b = c:d then (a+b):b = (c+d):d 8. Dividendo If a:b = c:d then (a-b):b = (c-d):d 9. Componendo and dividendo If a:b = c:d then a+b:a-b::c+d:c-d
Examples

1. A petroleum distributor has two gasohol storage tanks, the first containing 9 percent alcohol and the second containing 12 percent alcohol. They receive an order for 300,000 gallons of 10 percent alcohol. How can they mix alcohol from the two tanks to fill this order? Let x = volume of type(1) 100-x = volume of type(2) in 100 gallons of mixture. Then 0.09x + 0.12(100-x) = 10 gallons -0.03x + 12 = 10 2 = 0.03x and so x = 66.6667 gallons So we use 66+(2/3) gallons type (1) and 33+(1/3) gallons type (2) per 100 gallons of mixture. For 300,000 gallons, we multiply up by 3000 to get 200,000 and 100,000 of type (1) and type (2) respectively. 2. Suppose 30 liters of a solution with an unknown percentage of alcohol is mixed with 5 liters of a 90% alcohol solution. If the resulting mixture is a 62% alcohol solution, what is the percentage of alcohol in the first solution? Think of the amount of alcohol in each solution. In the first one, it 30*(x/100) liters. In the second one, it is 5*(90/100). In the last one, it 35*(62/100) (because the total amount of the mixture is 35 = 30 + liters). When the first two solutions are mixed, the total amount of alcohol is is 5 is

the sum of the amounts in the two ingredients, so you get an equation: 30*(x/100) + 5*(90/100) = 35*(62/100).
Assignments

Discuss and post solution 1. From a circular sheet of paper with a radius of 20 cm, four circles of radius 5cm each are cut out. What is the ratio of the uncut to the cut portion? 2. Two liquids A and B are in the ratio 5 : 1 in container 1 and in container 2, they are in the ratio 1 : 3. In what ratio should the contents of the two containers be mixed so as to obtain a mixture of A and B in the ratio 1 : 1? 3. The cost of a diamond varies directly as the square of its weight. Once, this diamond broke into four pieces with weights in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : 4. When the pieces were sold, the merchant got Rs. 70,000 less. Find the original price of the diamond. 4. In a locality, two-thirds of the people have cable-TV, one-fifth have VCR, and one-tenth have both, what is the fraction of people having either cable TV or VCR? 5. A can is full of paint. Out of this 5 litres are removed and thinning liquid substituted. The process is repeated. Now the ratio of paint to thinner is 49 :15. What is the full capacity of the can? 6. The ratio of sum of squares of first n natural numbers with square of sum of first n natural numbers is 17: 325. the value of n is 7. The value of each of a set of silver coins varies as the square of its diameter, if its thickness remains constant; and it varies as the thickness, if the diameter remains constant. If the diameters of two coins are in the ratio 4 : 3 what should the ratio of their thickness be if the value of the first is 4 times that of the second?

Quadratic Equations
Tutorial

A quadratic equation in one unknown is an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c =0, where a is not equal to 0. When we solve a linear equation, we may transpose the terms and leave the unknown on one side of the equation. However, this is often not the case for a quadratic equation. There are other methods to solve a quadratic equation, e.g. by factorization, by completing the square and by the quadratic formula. Furthermore, for a

linear equation in the form of mx + n =0, where m is not 0, there is always a solution x = -n/m , which is a real number. On the contrary, a quadratic equation may have two real roots, one double root or no real roots. Solving quadratic equations There are several methods to solve a quadratic equation. Some quadratic expressions can be factorized and then the equation is easy to solve. 1. If pq = 0, then p=0 or q=0. If quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c =0 can be factorized into (px+q)(rx+s) =0,
then we have px + q = 0 or rx + s = 0, which gives x =-q/p or x = -s/r respectively. 2. Method of completing square. The method of completing the square is to change the equation from the form ax2 + bx + c =0 to (x+p)2 = q. This can be done by dividing the whole equation by a and then we have x2 + b/a x = -c/a x2 + 2.1/2.b/a x + (b/2a)2= -c/a + (b/2a)2 (x + b/2a)2 = -c/a + (b/2a)2 and thus p = b/2a and q = -c/a + (b/2a)2 . If q > 0 then x + p = +(-)q or x = -p +(-)q. If q = 0, then x = -p. If q < 0, equation has no real roots. The result x = -p +(-)q still holds but the roots will be complex. 3. If ax2 + bx + c =0 and a is not equal to 0, the roots of the equation is given by

Examples Example 1:

Let A and B be the roots of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c =0 with a not equal to 0 then A + B = - b/a and AB = c/a

For a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c =0 with a not equal to 0, the discriminant D = b2 - ac. 1. If D > 0, the equation has two distinct real roots. 2. if D = 0, the equation has one double real root. 3. if D < 0, the equation has no real root, it has two distinct unreal roots. Assignment

Discuss and post solutions

1. Given the quadratic equation x2 - (A - 3) x - (A - 2) = 0, for what value of A will the sum of the squares of the roots be zero? 2. A quadratic with integral coefficients has two distinct positive integers as roots, the sum of its coefficients is prime and it takes the value -55 for some integer. The sum of the roots is 3. How many real r are there such that the roots of x2 + rx + 6r = 0 are both integers?

Linear Equations
A linear equation is an equation whose graph is a straight line. A linear equation in one variable is an equation that simlpy involves x. A linear equation is any equation that can be written in the form ax + b = 0. There are no terms involving x2, x3, x1/2 etc. Each term has a degree of at most 1. All operations, such as addition or multiplication, involve only x and numerical constants. 3x + 4 = 5 is an example of a linear equation. 2(x+1) = 6(x-4) is also a linear equation. These equations can be solved very easily by performing algebraic operations to the equation to isolate x. A linear equation in two variables is, as the name suggests, an equation that involves 2 variables. The standard form of this type of equation is Ax + By = C, where A,B and C are real numbers. For example, 3x + y = 7 is a linear equation in two variables. y = 2x + 1/3 is also an example, since it can be rewritten as 2x - y = -1/3 ( or equivalently 6x - 3y = -1 ). Linear equation in one variable properties. 1. If a = b then a+c = b+c. 2. If a = b then a -c = b-c. 3. If a = b then ac = bc. 4. If a=b then a/b = b/c. Linear equations in two variables can also be expressed in the slopeintercept form y = mx + b. The slope of a line, represented by the variable m, is defined as the ratio of change in values of y to change in value of x. The slope is also known as rise over run. For any two points (x1 ,y1), (x2 ,y2) on a line L, the formula for calculating the slope of L is: m = (y2 - y1)/(x2 - x1) Two lines are parallel if they have equal slopes. Parallel lines never cross each other. The distance between two parallel lines is always the same for every point along the lines. Two lines are perpendicular, meaning their angle of intersection is 90, if their slopes are negative reciprocals of each other. For lines L 1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2, respectively, m1m2 = -1

Example 1: A calculator has been marked up 15% and is being sold for $78.50. How much did the store pay the manufacturer of the calculator? Solution: First, lets define p to be the cost that the store paid for the calculator. The stores markup on the calculator is 15%. This means that 0.15p has been added on to the original price (p) to get the amount the calculator is being sold for. In other words, we have the following equation p + 0.15p = 78.50 that we need to solve for p. Doing this gives, 1.15p = 78.50 therefore p = 78.5/1.15. The store paid $68.26 for the calculator. Example 2: A shirt is on sale for $15.00 and has been marked down 35%. How much was the shirt being sold for before the sale? Solution: Lets start with defining p to be the price of the shirt before the sale. It has been marked down by 35%. This means that 0.35p has been subtracted off from the original price. Therefore, the equation (and solution) is, p - 0.35p = 15 0.65p = 15 p = 15/0.65 = 23.07

Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation in one unknown is an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c =0, where a is not equal to 0. When we solve a linear equation, we may transpose the terms and leave the unknown on one side of the equation. However, this is often not the case for a quadratic equation. There are other methods to solve a quadratic equation, e.g. by factorization, by completing the square and by the quadratic formula. Furthermore, for a linear equation in the form of mx + n =0, where m is not 0, there is always a solution x = -n/m , which is a real number. On the contrary, a quadratic equation may have two real roots, one double root or no real roots. Solving quadratic equations There are several methods to solve a quadratic equation. Some quadratic expressions can be factorized and then the equation is easy to solve. 1. If pq = 0, then p=0 or q=0.

If quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c =0 can be factorized into (px+q)(rx+s) =0,

then we have px + q = 0 or rx + s = 0, which gives x =-q/p or x = -s/r respectively. 2. Method of completing square. The method of completing the square is to change the equation from the form ax2 + bx + c =0 to (x+p)2 = q. This can be done by dividing the whole equation by a and then we have x2 + b/a x = -c/a x2 + 2.1/2.b/a x + (b/2a)2= -c/a + (b/2a)2 (x + b/2a)2 = -c/a + (b/2a)2 and thus p = b/2a and q = -c/a + (b/2a)2 . If q > 0 then x + p = +(-)q or x = -p +(-)q. If q = 0, then x = -p. If q < 0, equation has no real roots. The result x = -p +(-)q still holds but the roots will be complex. 3. If ax2 + bx + c =0 and a is not equal to 0, the roots of the equation is given by

Examples Example 1:

Let A and B be the roots of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c =0 with a not equal to 0 then A + B = - b/a and AB = c/a

For a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c =0 with a not equal to 0, the discriminant D = b2 - ac. 1. If D > 0, the equation has two distinct real roots. 2. if D = 0, the equation has one double real root. 3. if D < 0, the equation has no real root, it has two distinct unreal roots. Assignment

Discuss and post solutions

1. Given the quadratic equation x2 - (A - 3) x - (A - 2) = 0, for what value of A will the sum of the squares of the roots be zero? 2. A quadratic with integral coefficients has two distinct positive integers as roots, the sum of its coefficients is prime and it takes the value -55 for some integer. The sum of the roots is 3. How many real r are there such that the roots of x2 + rx + 6r = 0 are both integers?

Progressions
Arithmetic Progression

An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers such that the difference of any two successive members of the sequence is a constant. For example, the sequence 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,... is an arithmetic progression with common difference 2. Arithmetic a1 + an = Formulae an = for a2 + the 1/2 n-th progression an-1 = x term ... can be (an-1 + = property: ak+an-k+1 defined an+1) as:

If the initial term of an arithmetic progression is a1 and the common difference of successive members is d, then the n-th term of the sequence is

given an =

a1 +

(n

1)d,

1,

2,

by ...

The sum S of the first n values of a finite sequence is given by the formula: S = 1/2(a1 + an)n, where a1 is the first term and an the last. or S = 1/2(2a1 + d(n-1))n

Example 1: Find the sum of the first 10 numbers from this arithmetic progression 1, 11, 21, 31... 1 Solution: we can use this formula S = /2(2a1 + d(n-1))n S = 1/2(2.1 + 10(10-1))10 = 5(2 + 90) = 5.92 = 460 Example 2: The sum of the three numbers in A.P is 21 and the product of their extremes is 45. Find the numbers. Solution: Let the numbers are be a d, a, a + Then a d + a + a + d = 3a = a = and (a d)(a + d) = a2 d2 = d2 = d = Hence, the numbers are 5, 7 and 9 when d = 2 and 9, 7 and 5 when d = In both the cases numbers are the same.
Geometric Progression

d 21 21 7 45 45 4 +2 -2.

A geometric progression is a sequence of numbers such that the quotient of any two successive members of the sequence is a constant called the common ratio of the sequence. a geometric sequence can be written as:
aq0=a, aq1=aq, aq2, q3, ... where q 0, q is the common ratio and a is a scale factor.

Formulae for the n-th term can be defined as:

an = an-1.q an = a1.qn-1

The common ratio then is:

ak q= ak-1

A sequence with a common ratio of 2 and a scale factor of 1 is 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32... A sequence with a common ratio of -1 and a scale factor of 3 is 5, -5, 5, -5, 5, -5,... If the common ratio is:

Negative, the results will alternate between positive and negative. Greater than 1, there will be exponential growth towards infinity (positive). Less than -1, there will be exponential growth towards infinity (positive and negative). Between 1 and -1, there will be exponential decay towards zero. Zero, the results will remain at zero

Geometric Progression Properties

a2k = ak-1.ak+1 a1.an = a2.an-1 =...= ak.an-k+1

Formula for the sum of the first n numbers of geometric progression

Sn = a1 - anq 1 - q = a1. 1 - qn 1 - q

Infinite geometric series where |q| < 1

If |q| < 1 then an -> 0, when n -> So the sum S of such a infinite geometric progression is:
1 S= 1-x which is valid only for |x| < 1

Harmonic Progressions A sequence of numbers is said to form a harmonic progression if their reciprocals form an arithmetic progression. e.g. 1/4, 1/9, 1/14, 1/19 are in H.P. since 4,9, 14, 19 are in A.P. In general, the numbers 1/a, 1/(a+d), 1/(a+2d), ..., 1/(a+(n+1)d) are in H.P.

Note: i) The series formed by the reciprocals of the terms of a geometric series is also a geometric series.
ii) There is no general method of finding the sum of a harmonic progression.

Binomial Theorem

An algebraic expression consisting of two terms with a positive or negative sign between them is called abinomial expression. e.g. (a+b), ( P / x2) (Q / x4) etc. Binomial Theorem: When a binomial expression is raised to a power n we would like to be able to expand it. The binomial theorem assists us in doing this. It converts such an expression into a series. Binomial Theorem for positive integral index:

(x+y)n = xn + nC1xn-1y+nC2xn-2y2+-----+nCrxn-ryr+ -------+---------+nCn-1xyn+ ncnyn. 1 (x+y)n =

n n n-r r y r=0 Crx

therefore Replacing x by 1 and y by x, we have : (1+x)n = nCoxo+nC1x+nC2x2+---------+nCrxr+------+nCn-1xn-1+nCnxn. Properties (i) (ii) of There are Binomial (n+1) terms Expansion in the (x+y)n : expansion.

In each term, sum of the indices of x and y is equal to n.

(iii) the (iv)

In any term, the lower suffix of c is equal to the index of y, and index of x = n-(lower suffix of c). Because so we have
n

Cr = nCn-r, :

n n n

Co = nCn C1=nCn-1 C2=nCn-2 etc.

It follows that the coefficients of terms equidistant from the beginning and the ends are equal. General Terms (x+y)n is it is Tr+1 = nCrxn-ryr Greatest Coefficient : In any binomial expansion middle-term has the greatest. Coefficient. (i) (ii) If n is even, then greatest coefficient
n

: (r

+1)

th

term

from

beginning term,

in and by

called

general

denoted

So =
n

Cn/2

If n is odd, then greatest coefficients are nC(n+1)/ 2 and of Binomial coefficients

C(n-1)/2 :

Properties

(1) The sum of binomial coefficient in (1 + x)n is 2n. (2) The sum of the coefficients of the odd-terms in (1+x)n is equal to the sum of coefficients of the even terms and each is equal to 2n-1.

Inequalities

Tutorial

The term inequality is applied to any statement involving one of the symbols <, >, , . Example i. ii. iii. iv. x a2 + ab > 1 of + p2 y inequalities + + 2z > q2 x are: 1 16 1/2

Properties of Inequalities 1. e.g. 2. e.g. 3. e.g. If a If If b -3 a a and -1 b 2 b 3 c is and 3 9 and c any real implies c number, then -3+4 -1 is positive, implies a + then c + b + c. 4.

ac bc. 2(4) 3(4).

is negative, implies b 8/3. c,

then ac bc. 3(-2) 9(-2). then a c.

4. e.g. -1/2

If a b and 2 and 2 8/3 imply -1/2

Solution of Inequality By solution of the one variable inequality 2x + 3 7 we mean any number which substituted for x yields a true statement. e.g. 1 is a solution of 2x + 3 7 since 2(1) + 3 = 5 and 5 is less than and equal to 7. By a solution of the two variable inequality x - y 5 we mean any ordered pair of numbers which when substituted for x and y, respectively, yields a true statement. e.g. (2, 1) is a solution of x - y 5 because 2-1 = 1 and 1 5.
Examples

Example 1: If -1 < x < 4 the determine a, b in a < 2x + 3 < b. Solution: We have -1 < x < 4 so multiply everything by 2. We will get

-2 < 2x < 8 Now add 3 to everything. so 1 < 2x + 3< 11. Therefore a = 1, and b = 11.
Assignment

Discuss and post solution 1. If |b| > 1 and x = |a|b, then which one of the following is necessarily true? a) a xb <= 0 b) a xb > 0 c) a xb < 0 d) a xb >= 0 2. If a, b, c are real numbers such that a < b < c and a + b + c = 6, ab + bc + ca = 9, then which among the following is definitely true? (a) 0 < a < 1 (b) 1 < b < 3 (c) 3 < c < 4 (d) All of them (e) none of them 3. Let x be a real number such that 1 1/n < x <= 3 + 1/n is true for all natural numbers n. Which among the following best describes x? (a) 1 < x < 3 (b) 1 <= x <= 3 (c) 0 < x < 4 (d) 1 < x <= 3 (e) 0 < x <= 4 4. If a2b3c = 256/27 find min value of a + b + c, given a, b, c are positive real nos. 5. From four positive real nos a, b, c and d, 4 distinct combination of sum of three numbers are formed S1, S2, S3 and S4. IF abcd = 5. FInd the min value of S1S2S3S4.

Permutation and Combinations

Permutations: The ways in which a number of given objects can be arranged by taking all of them or a specified number of objects out of them are called PERMUTATIONS. Thus the number of permutations of three objects, viz. a, b, and c, taking all of them at a time is 6 i.e., abc, acb, bcd, bac, cab and cba. The number of ways in which 2 objects can be taken and arranged out of 3 objects a, b and c is 6, viz. ab, ba, bc, cb, ac and ca. The number of permutations of r things our of n things is denoted by npr. Formulae: 1. n! = n(n-1)(n-2)....(1)

2. npr = n!/(n-r)! Example:

10

P4 = 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 = 5040

3. The number of ways in which n objects can be arranged in a circle is (n1)! Combinations: The ways in which a specified number of objects can be taken out of a given number of objects (without regard to their arrangements) are called Combinations. The symbol nCr denotes the number of combinations or r things out of n things. Thus, for example the number of combinations of 2 objects out of three given objects a, b and c is 3, viz. ab, ca, bc. Formulae: 1. nCr = nPr/r! 2. nCr = nCn-r 3. nCr + nCr-1 =
(n+1)

Cr

4. nC0 + nC1 + nC2 + nC3 + ......nCn = 2n Circular Permutations There are two types of circular permutations. (a) If clockwise and anti clock-wise orders are different, then total number of circular-permutations is given by (n-1)! (b) If clock-wise and anti-clock-wise orders are taken as not different, then total number of circular-permutations is given by (n-1)!/2! Number of circular-permutations of n different things taken r at a time:(a) If clock-wise and anti-clockwise orders are taken as different, then total number of circular-permutations = nPr /r (b) If clock-wise and anti-clockwise orders are taken as not different, then total number of circular permutation = nPr/2r

Examples
Example 1: In how many ways can the letters of the word ABACUS be rearranged such that the vowels always appear together? Solution: ABACUS is a 6 letter word with 3 of the letters being vowels. If the 3 vowels have to appear together, then there will 3 other consonants and a set of 3 vowels together. These 4 elements can be rearranged in 4! Ways.

The 3 vowels can rearrange amongst themselves in 3!/2! ways as "a" appears twice. Hence, the total number of rearrangements in which the vowels appear together are (4! x 3!)/2! Example 2: How many different four letter words can be formed (the words need not be meaningful) using the letters of the word "MEDITERRANEAN" such that the first letter is E and the last letter is R? Solution: The first letter is E and the last one is R.

Therefore, one has to find two more letters from the remaining 11 letters. Of the 11 letters, there are 2 Ns, 2Es and 2As and one each of the remaining 5 letters. The second and third positions can either have two different letters or have both the letters to be the same. Case 1: When the two letters are different. One has to choose two different letters from the 8 available different choices. This can be done in 8 * 7 = 56 ways. Case 2: When the two letters are same. There are 3 options - the three can be either Ns or Es or As. Therefore, 3 ways. Total number of posssibilities = 56 + 3 = 59.

Example 3: How many different signals can be made by 5 flags from 8-flags of different colours? Solution: = = 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 = 6720 Example 4: A child has 3 pocket and 4 coins. In how many ways can he put the coins in his pocket? Solution: First coin can be put in 3 ways, similarly second, third and forth coins also can be put in 3 ways. 4 So total number of ways = 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 3 = 81 Number of ways taking 5 flags out of 8-flags = 8P5

8!/(8-5)!

Assignment
Discuss and post solution 1. A man has nine friends, four boys and five girls. In how many ways can he invite them, if there have to be exactly three girls in the invitees? 2. A company manufactures pencils in boxes of 6, 9, and 20. The boxes are sealed and the pencils cannot be sold loose. What is the largest number of pencils that a wholesaler cannot purchase using some combination of these boxes? 3. The number of ways in which 10 candidates A1, A2, , A10 can be ranked so that A1 is always above A2 is ? 4. A hosted a party and invited all her friends and asked them to invite their friends.There are n people in the party.Only S is not known to A.Each pair that does not include A or S has exactly 2 common friends.Also,S knows everyone except A.If only 2 friends can dance at a time,how many dance numbers will be there at the party? 5. In a classroom there are 14 students seated in 3 rows of 5 chairs. The place at the centre of the room is unoccupied. A teacher decides to reassign the seats such that each student will occupy a chair adjacent to his/her present one (i.e. move one desk forward, backward, right or left). In how many ways can this reassignment be done?

6. Consider a 4 digit number. the first 2 digits are equal and last 2 digits are also equal. How many of such digits are perfect square? 7. Suppose u have a currency, named x, in 3 denominations, 1, 10 and 50. In how many ways can 107 x be given in this currency?

Functions
A relation is a set of ordered pairs where the first components of the ordered pairs are the input values and the second components are the output values. A function is a relation that assigns to each input number EXACTLY ONE output number. The domain is the set of all input values to which the rule applies. These are called your independent variables. These are the values that correspond to the first components of the ordered pairs it is associated with. The range is the set of all output values. These are called your dependent variables. These are the values that correspond to the second components of the ordered pairs it is associated with. Function Notation f(x) read "f of x" is the function name. Output values are also called functional values. Note that you can use any letter to represent a function name, f is a very common one used.
f x

is your input variable.

Think of functional notation as a fancy assignment statement. When you need to evaluate the function for a given value of x, you simply replace x with that given value and simplify. For example, if we are looking for f(0), we would plug in 0 as the value of x in our function f. If the function is constant, that means that the functional value never changes, it is always equal to that constant.

f(x) = c, where c is a constant.

Assignment
Discuss and post solution DIRECTIONS for Questions 1 and 2: Answer the questions based on the following information:A, S, M and D are functions of x and y, and they are defined as follows: A(x, y) = x + y S(x, y) = x y M(x, y) = xy D(x, y) = x/y, where y in not equal 0. 1. What is the value of M(M(A(M(x, y), S(y,x)), x), A(y, x)) for x = 2, y = 3 ? 2. What is the value of S(M(D(A(a, b), 2), D(A(a, b),2)), M(D(S(a, b), 2), D(S(a, b),2))) ? 3. What is the value of 1.1!+2.2!+3.3!+--------+n.n! ? 4. Let g(x) be a function such that g(x + 1) + g(x 1) = g(x) for every real x. Then for what value of p is the relation g(x + p) = g(x) necessarily true for every real x? 5. A function y = f(n) is defined, for all natural numbers, as the sum of the digits of n. if k is a natural number such that f(f(f(f(k)))) = 1 and k > f(f(k)).f (f(f(k))) > 1 what is the least number of digits that k can have? 6. A function y = f(n) is defined, for all natural numbers, as the sum of the digits of n. for a natural number m, what is the value of f(f(m f(m)))?

Probability

An experiment is an act for which the outcome is uncertain. Examples of experiments are rolling a die, tossing a coin, surveying a group of people on their favorite soft drink, etc... An experiment is said to be a random experiment, if it's out-come can't be predicted with certainty. Example; If a coin is tossed, we can't say, whether head or tail will appear. So it is a random experiment. A sample space S for an experiment is the set of all possible outcomes of the experiment such that each outcome corresponds to exactly one element in S. The elements of S are called sample points. If there is a finite number of sample points, that number is denoted n(S), and S is said to be a finite sample space. For example, if our experiment is rolling a single die, the sample space would be S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. If our experiment is tossing a single coin, our sample space would be S = {Heads, Tails}. Every subset of a sample space is an event. It is denoted by 'E'. e.g. In throwing a dice S={1,2,3,4,5,6}, the appearance of an event number will be the event E={2,4,6}. An event, consisting of a single sample point is called a simple event. e.g. In throwing a dice, S={1,2,3,4,5,6}, so each of {1},{2},{3},{4},{5} and {6} are simple events. Compound event: A subset of the sample space, which has more than on element is called a mixed event.e.g. In throwing a dice, the event of appearing of odd numbers is a compound event, because E={1,3,5} which has '3' elements. Equally likely events: Events are said to be equally likely, if we have no reason to believe that one is more likely to occur than the other. e.g. When a dice is thrown, all the six faces {1,2,3,4,5,6} are equally likely to come up. Exhaustive events: When every possible out come of an experiment is considered. e.g. A dice is thrown, cases 1,2,3,4,5,6 form an exhaustive set of events. Probability of an Event

If 'S' be the sample space, then the probability of occurrence of an event 'E' is defined as: P(E) = n(E)/N(S) = (number of elements in 'E'/ (number of elements in sample space 'S') Empirical Probability Finding the probability of an empirical event is specifically based on direct observations or experiences. For example, a survey may have been taken by a group of people. If the data collected is used to find the probability of an event tied to the survey, it would be an empirical probability. Or if a scientist did research on a topic and recorded the outcome and the data from this is used to find the probability of an event tied to the research, it would also be an empirical probability. Equiprobable space A sample space S is called an equiprobable space if and only if all the simple events are equally likely to occur. e.g. A toss of a fair coin. It is equally likely for a head to show up as it is for a tail. Mutually Exclusive Events E and F are said to be mutually exclusive if and only if they have no elements in common. E.g. if the sample space is rolling a die, where S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, and E is the event of rolling an even number, E = {2, 4, 6} and F is the event of rolling an odd number, F = {1, 3, 5}, E and F are mutually exclusive, because they have NO elements in common.
Bayes' Theorem The short form of Bayes' Theorem states that if E and F are events, then P(E|F)P(F) P(F|E) = ---------------------P(E|F)P(F) + P(E|F')P(F')

Properties of Probability 1. 0 <= P(E) <= 1 2. P(not E) = 1 - P(E) So if, P(E) = 1/4 then P(not E) = 3/4. 3. "Or" probabilities with mutually exclusive events P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B) 4. "Or" probabilities with events that are NOT mutually exclusive P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A AND B) 5. A and B are Independent Events if an only if P(A AND B) = P(A)P(B)

Examples
Example 1: Find the probability of getting a tail in tossing of a coin. Solution: Sample space S = {H,T} and n(s) Event 'E' = {T} and n(E) therefore P(E) = n(E)/n(S) = 1/2 = = 2 1

Example 2: A glass jar contains 6 red, 5 green, 8 blue and 3 yellow marbles. If a single marble is chosen at random from the jar, what is the probability of choosing a red marble? a green marble? a blue marble? a yellow marble? Solution: Outcomes: The possible outcomes of this experiment are red, green, blue and yellow. Probabilities: P(red) = number of ways to choose red/total number of marbles = 6/22 = 3/11 P(green) = P(blue) 8/22 = number of ways to choose green/total number of marbles 5/22 number of ways to choose blue/total number of marbles = = 4/11 number of ways to choose yellow/total number of

P(yellow) = marbles = 3/22

Example 3: A man can hit a target once in 4 shots. If he fires 4 shots in succession, what is the probability that he will hit his target? Solution: The man will hit the target even if he hits it once or twice or thrice or all four times in the four shots that he takes. So, the only case where the man will not hit the target is when he fails to hit the target even in one of the four shots that he takes. The probability that he will not hit the target in one shot = 1 - 1/4 = 3/4 Therefore, the probability that he will not hit the target in all the four shots =3/4 x 3/4 x 3/4 x 3/4 = 81/256 Hence, the probability that he will hit the target at least in one of the four shots = 1 81/256 = 175/256 . Example 4: What is the probability that the position in which the consonants appear remain unchanged when the letters of the word Math are re-arranged? Solution: The total number of ways in which the word Math can be rearranged = 4! = 4*3*2*1 = 24 ways. Now, if the positions in which the consonants appear do not change, the first, third and the fourth positions are reserved for consonants and the vowel A remains at the second position. The consonants M, T and H can be re-arranged in the first, third and fourth positions in 3! = 6 ways without the positions in which the positions in which the consonants appear changing. Therefore, the required probability = 3!/4! = 6/24 = 1/4

Assignment
Discuss and post solutions 1. Out of two-thirds of the total number of basket-ball matches, a team has won 17 matches and lost 3 of them. What is the maximum number of matches that the team can lose and still win three-fourths of the total number of matches, if it is true that no match can end in a tie?

2. 4 people played a game of chess, where each one plays every other player. What is the maximum number of points that any player could gather if every win gets him 1 point ? 3. From a pack of 52 cards, all face cards are removed and four cards are drawn. Then the probability that they are of different suit and different denomination is 4. Five balls of different colours are to be placed in three boxes of different sizes. Each box can hold all five balls. The number of ways in which we can place the balls in the boxes so that no box remains empty is ? 5. How many arrangements can be made of the letters of the word DRAUGHT the vowels never being separated? 6. If the integers m and n are chosen at random from integers from integers 1 to 100 with replacement, then the probability that a no. of the form 7m + 7n is divisible by 5 equals?

Set Theory

A set is a collection of things. Absolutely anything can be considered a set. Below you'll see just a sampling of items that could be considered as sets:

Your favorite clothes A coin collection The items in a store The English alphabet Even numbers

A set could have as many entries as you would like. It could have one entry, 10 entries, 15 entries, or even an infinite number of entries. On the next page you'll find out that a set could even have no entries at all! For example, in the above list the English alphabet would have 26 entries, while the set of even numbers would have an infinite number of entries. Each entry in a set is known as an element. We'll find out more about elements in the next section.

Sets are written using curly brackets ("{" and "}"), with their elements listed in between. For example the English alphabet could be written as {a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z} and even numbers could be {0,2,4,6,8,10,...} (Note: the dots at the end indicating that the set goes on infinitely) A union of two or more sets is another set that contains everything contained in the previous sets. Union is designated by the If A and B are sets then A B represents the union of A and B Example: A={1,2,3,4,5} A B = {1,2,3,4,5,7,9,11,13} B={5,7,9,11,13} symbol .

The intersection of two (or more) sets is those elements that they have in common. Intersection is designated by the symbol . So if A and B are sets then the intersection (the elements they both have in common) is denoted by A B. Example: A={1,3,5,7,9} The elements A B = {3,5} Subset Let A be the set of objects that you own in your home Let B be the set of objects that you own which are kept on the second floor of your home Let C be the set of objects that you own which are kept in your bedroom [Note the bedroom is own the second floor] Let D be the set of objects that you own which are kept in your bedroom nightstand Now we could say D is contained within C, which in turn is contained within B, which in turn is contained within A. B={2,3,4,5,6} 3 and 5

they

have

in

common

are

This D is said to (another way set C is said to (another way set B is said to (another way set

is the notion of a subset. be a subset of C since it is completely contained within C to think of this is every element of set D is also an element of C). be a subset of B since it is completely contained within B to think of this is every element of set C is also an element of A). be a subset of A since it is completely contained within A to think of this is every element of set D is also an element of C). for subset is .

The symbol So D C and C B and B A.

However if even one element of one set is not contained within the other then thy are not subsets. If A were defined as {1,2,3,4,5} and B as {3,4,5,6} then B would not be a subset of A since 6 B but 6 A. The symbol for not a subset is . We would write B A.

Profit Loss and Discount

Tutorial
Definitions

Cost Price (CP) : It is the amount spent in making the product and includes the cost of raw material. Sales Price (SP) : It is the price at which product is sold. Profit : If the sales price is more than cost price than the difference is realized as profit. Loss : If the cost price is more than the sales price than the person makes a loss.

Discount: Discount is the rebate offered on the selling price or marked price of the product.
Formulae

1. Profit = Sales price - Cost price 2. Loss = Cost price - Sales price 3. Profit percentage = (profit/cost price)* 100 4. Profit on selling price = (profit/sale price) * 100 5. Selling price = Marked price - Discount

Examples
1. A shopkeeper buys scientific calculators in bulk for $15 each. He sells them for $40 each. Calculate the profit on each calculator in dollars, and as a percentage of the cost price. Given: cost price = $15, selling price = $40 profit = selling price cost price = $40 $15 = $25 Expressing the profit as a percentage of the cost price: $profit profit% = ----------------------- 100% $cost price = ------- 100% = $25 166.7% $15

2. A school bookshop sells an outdated biology text book for $49.35, making a 6% loss. What was the cost price of the book, and what is the cash value of the loss? Given: selling price = $49.35, loss = 6% of cost price but, (cost price) = (selling price) + loss Expressing as percentages of the cost price: (cost price) = (selling price) + loss 100% x% + 6%

This means that the selling price is (100-6) = 94% of the cost price. 94 selling price = ------- (cost price) 100 So: 100 cost price = ------- (selling price) 94 100 49.35 94 $52.50 price) $49.35

-------= price) $52.50

So:

loss

(cost

= = $3.15

(selling -

3. The usual price for an adult movie ticket at Big Screen Cinemas is $18. On Tuesdays they offer a 15% discount. Calculate the cash value of the discount, and the cost of the tickets on Tuesdays. Given: marked price = $18, discount = 15% of marked price 15 = ------- (marked price) 100 15 = ------- $18 100 = So: (selling price) = = (marked price) $18 = $2.70 discount $2.70 $15.30

On Tuesdays, the tickets cost $15.30

Assignment
Discuss and post solution

1. Once I had been to the post-office to buy stamps of five rupees, two rupees and one rupee. I paid the clerk Rs 20, and since he did not have change, he gave me three more stamps of one rupee. If the number of stamps of each type that I had ordered initially was more than one, what was the total number of stamps that I bought? 2. I sold two watches for Rs. 300 each, one at a loss of 10% and the other at a profit of 10%. What is the percent loss (- ) or the percent profit (+) that resulted from the transaction? 3. Instead of a metre scale, a cloth merchant uses a 120 cm scale while buying, but uses an 80 cm scale while selling the same cloth. If he offers a discount of 20 percent on cash payment, what is his overall percent profit? DIRECTIONS for Questions 4 and 5: Use the following information: A watch dealer incurs an expense of Rs 150 for producing every watch. He also incurs an additional expenditure of Rs. 30,000, which is independent of the number of watches produced. If he is able to sell a watch during the season, he sells it for Rs. 250. If he fails to do so, he has to sell each watch for Rs. 100. 4. If he is able to sell only 1200 out of the 1500 watches he has made in the season, then he has made a profit of? 5. If he produces 1500 watches, what is the number of watches that he must sell during the season in order to break even, given that he is able to sell all the watches produced?

Averages
Arithmetic Mean

Arithmetic mean is commonly called as average.Mean or Average is defined as the sum of all the given elements divided by the total number of elements. Formula: Mean

sum

of

elements

/ =

number of elements a1+a2+a3+.....+an/n

Example: Step

To

find 1: Find

the the

mean sum of 3+5+7 the are

of the = total 3

3,5,7. numbers. 15 number. numbers. mean.

Step

2: Calculate there Step

3: Finding

15/3 = 5
Arithmetic Median

Median is the middle value of the given numbers or distribution in their ascending order.Median is the average value of the two middle elements when the size of the distribution is even. Example 1: To find the median of Step 1: Count the total There are 5 elements or numbers 2: Arrange the numbers in 4,5,7,2,1 [ODD]. numbers given. in the distribution. ascending order. 1,2,4,5,7

Step

Step 3: The total elements in the distribution (5) is odd. The middle position can be calculated using the formula. (n+1)/2 So the middle position is (5+1)/2 = 6/2 = 3 The number at 3rd position is = Median = 4 Example 2: To find the median of 4,5,7,2,1,8 [Even] Step 1: Count the total numbers given. There are 6 elements or numbers in the distribution. 2: Arrange the numbers in ascending order. 1,2,4,5,7,8

Step

Step 3: The total elements in the distribution (6) is even. As the total is even, we have to take average of number at n/2 and (n/2)+1 So the position are n/2= 6/2 = 3 and 4

The

number

at

3rd

and

4th

position the

are

4,5

Step 4: Find The average is (4+5)/2 = Median = 4.5

Arithmetic Mode

median.

Mode is the most frequently occurring value in a frequency distribution. Example: Step To find 1:Arrange the the mode numbers of in 11,3,5,11,7,3,11 ascending order. 3,3,5,7,11,11,11

In the Number 11 Number 3 Number 5 Number 7 So the number with most occurrances distribution. Mode = 11
Range

2: above distribution occurs 3 times, occurs 2 times, occurs 1 times, occurs 1 times. is 11 and is the Mode of this

Step

Range is the difference between the highest and the lowest values in a frequency distribution.

Example: Step

To find 1: Arrange

the range the numbers in

in 3,5,7,3,11 ascending order. 3,3,5,7,11

Step In the The largest The smallest = largest number

Formula Range = 11-3 = 8

2: above distribution number is 11 value is 3 smallest number

Time, Speed and Distance

Tutorial
Time 1. Distance 2. Speed 3. Time 4. 1 5. 1 m/sec = 18/5 km/h Example: 1. Rita covers a certain distance by a car traveling at a speed of 70 km/h and returns at the starting point riding on a scooter at the speed of 55 km/h. Find her average speed for the whole journey. Average Speed = (55 + 70)/2 = 62.5 km/h 2. Ram starts from his house for the college at a certain fixed time. If he walks at the rate of 5 km/h he is late by 7 minutes. However, if he walks at the rate of 6 km/h he reaches the college 5 minutes earlier than the scheduled time. Find the distance of the college from his house. Suppose the distance is x km. If he goes by 5km/h then x/5 - 7/60 = x/6 + 5/60. therefore x/30 = 1/5 so x = 6km Relative Speed Two bodies are moving in opposite directions at speed V1 & V2 respectively. The relative speed is defined as Vr = V1 + V2. Two bodies are moving in same directions at speed V1 & V2 respectively.The relative speed is defined as Vr = V1 - V2. Clock Problems and = = = km/h Speed Distance Distance = * / / 5/18 Speed Time Time Speed m/sec

For clock problems consider the clock as a circular track of 60km. Min. hand moves at the speed of 60km/hr (think min. hand as a point on the track) and hour hand moves at 5km/hr and second hand at the speed of 3600 km/hr. Relative speed between hr hand and mins hand = 55

Examples
1. A man travels a distance of 61 km in 9 hours partly on foot at the rate of 4 km/h and partly on bicycle at 9 km/h. How much distance does he cover on foot? Solution Let the distance covered on foot be x. Then the distance covered by bicycle is 61 -x. The total distance is covered in 9 hours. Time for which the man travels by foot = Distance/ velocity = x/4 hrs Time for which the man travels by bicycle = (61 -x) / 9 hrs x/4 9x 36 5x x = 16 km + + (61 244 = -4x 324 x)/9 = = 9 9 -244

2. A 75 m long train moving at 60 km/h can pass another train 100 m long, moving at 65 km/h in the opposite direction in: Solution Such problems can be solved using the formula velocity = distance/time. It's necessary to make sure that similar units are used in the formula. To completely pass each other, the trains have to cover a distance equal to the sum of the Iengths of the two trains, 75 + 100 = 175 mtrs. When travelling in opposite directions, the velocity with which this distance gets covered is the sum of the two velocities. 60 + 65 = 125 Kmph or 125 * 1000 mtrs per 60 * 60 Secs or 625/18 mtrs/sec. Therefore time to cross each other = 175 = 5.04 secs.

3. Find the speed of the current if a boy rows 13 km upstream and 28 km downstream taking 5 hours each time. Solution Let the speed of the current be x km/hr and that of the boy when he rows in still water be y km/hr. Then the relative speed when the boy rows upstream = y -x km/hr The relative speed when the boy rows downstream = y + x km/hr The time taken for the 13 km long upstream journey is 5 hours. Therefore we can write this as Speed = Distance/Time y -x = 13/5 -----I The time taken for the 28 km long downstream journey is also 5 hours, therefore y + x equations = = (28 II = from 28/5 equation 28/5 -13) I, ----we II obtain, -13/5 5 15/5

Subtracting 2x 2x 2x x

= = 3/2 = 1.5 km/hr, the speed of the current

Assignment
Discuss and post solution 1. Distance between A and B is 72 km. Two men started walking from A and B at the same time towards each other. The person who started from A travelled uniformly with average speed 4 kmph. While the other man travelled with varying speeds as follows: In first hour his speed was 2 kmph, in the second hour it was 2.5 kmph, in the third hour it was 3 kmph, and so on. When will they meet each other? 2. A man travels three-fifths of distance AB at a speed of 3a, and the remaining at a speed of 2b. If he goes from B to A and back at a speed of 5c in the same time, then: [1] 1/a + 1/b = 1/c [2] a + b = c [3] 1/a + 1/b = 2/c [4] None of these

3. A man travels form A to B at a speed of x kmph. He then rests at B or x hours. He then travels from B to C at a speed of 2x kmph and rests at C for 2x hours. He moves further to D at a speed twice as that between B and C. He thus reaches D in 16 hours. If distances A-B, B-C, C-D are all equal to 12 km, the time for which he rested at B could be: 4. In a watch, the minute hand crosses the hour hand for the third time exactly after every 3 hrs 18 min 15 seconds of watch time. What is the time gained or lost by this watch in one day? 5. In a mile race Akshay can be given a start of 128 metres by Bhairav. If Bhairav can given Chinmay a start of 4 metres in a 100 metres dash, then who out of Akshay and Chinmay will win a race of one and half mile, and what will be the final lead given by the winner to the loser? (One mile is 1600 metres). DIRECTIONS for Questions 6 and 7: In a locality, there are five small towns, A, B, C, D and E. The distances of these towns from each other are as follows: AB = 2km AC = 2 km AD > 2 km AE > 3 km BC = 2km BD = 4 km BE = 3 km CD = 2 km CE = 3km DE > 3 km 6. If a ration shop is to be set up within 2 km of each city, how many ration shops will be required? 7. If a ration shop is to be set up within 3 km of each city, how many ratio shops will be required?

Number System
Tutorial
A number system is a set of numbers, (in the broadest sense of the word), together with one or more operations, such as addition or multiplication.

Examples of number systems rational numbers, irrational numbers.

include: natural numbers, integers, numbers, real numbers, complex

All numbers are either real or complex numbers. The real numbers can be either rational or irrational numbers. Natural Numbers The natural numbers start off as follows: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 ... The "..." means that the list goes on forever. We give this set the name N. If a number is in N, then its successor is also in N. Thus, there is no greatest number, because we can always add one to get a larger one. N is an infinite set . Since it is infinite, N can never be exhausted by removing its members one at a time. Whole Numbers If we include 0 among the natural numbers then the numbers 0,1,2,3,4,5 ........... are called whole numbers. The set of whole numbers can be represented by W = {0,1,2,3,4,5, ........... .} Clearly, every natural number is a whole number but 0 is a whole number which is not a natural number Integers All counting numbers and their negatives including zero are known as integers. The set of integers can be represented by z or I = {.........-4,-3,2,-1,0,1,2,3,4..}. Every natural number is an integer but not every integer is natural number. Positive Integers The set I + = {1,2,3,4........} is the set of all positive integers. Positive integers and natural numbers are synonyms. Negative Integers The set I - = {-1,-2,-3,.......} is the set of all negative integers 0 is neither positive nor negative. Non Negative Integers The set {0,1,2,3........} is the set of all non negative integers.

Even and Odd The terms even and odd only apply to integers. A number is said to be an even number if it is divisible by 2 or else it is an odd number. Even numbers are: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10. . . . .40, 42, 44,. . . 312, 314, .... 1008,1010, . . . .686860.... Odd numbers are: . . 5, 7, 9. . . . .41, 43, 45,. . . 311, 313, .... 1007,1009, . . . .686861.... 2.5 is neither even nor odd. Zero, on the other hand, is even since it is 2 times some integer: it's 2 times 0. To check whether a number is odd, see whether it's one more than some even number: 7 is odd since it's one more than 6, which is even. Another way to say this is that zero is even since it can be written in the form 2*n, where n is an integer.Odd numbers can be written in the form 2*n + 1. Negative numbers are even and odd: -9 is odd since it's one more than -10, which is even. Every positive integer can be factored into the product of prime numbers, and there's only one way to do it for every number . For instance, 280 = 2x2x2x5x7, and there's only one way to factor 280 into prime numbers Rational Number A rational number is a number that can be expressed as a fraction p/q where p and q are integers and q 0 i.e Rational numbers are simply defined as ratios of integers. 1/2 is a rational number. 2/3 is also a rational number. Note that all Of the integers are rational numbers, because you can think of them as the ratio of themselves to 1, as in 2 = 2/1 which is certainly the ratio of two integers, and so 2 is a rational number. The decimal form of a rational number is either a terminating or repeating decimal. Irrational Numbers An irrational number is any real number that is not a rational number i.e., one that cannot be written as a ratio of two integers, i.e., it is not of the form a/b where a and b are integers and b is not zero.

It can readily be shown that the irrational numbers are precisely those numbers whose expansion in any given base (decimal, binary, etc) never ends and never enters a periodic pattern. The square root of 2 is a classic example of an irrational number: you cannot write it as the ratio of ANY two integers. Prime Numbers
A natural number greater than 1 that has no divisor between 1 and itself is said to be prime, hence called a prime number or simply a prime. Every natural number greater than 1 has at least the two distinct divisors 1 and itself; a prime has no others.

Prime Factors Suppose n is a natural number. Then there exists a unique sequence of prime numbers p1, p2, p3, . . . , pm, such that both of the following statements are true:

p1 p2 p1 x p2 x p3 . . . x pm

p3

pm

The numbers p1, p2, p3, . . . , pm are called the prime factors of the natural number. Every natural number n has one, but only one, set of prime factors. This is an important principle known as the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.

Number of Prime Factors A number N of the form am x bn x cp where a, b, c are all prime factors of number N has (m + 1)(n + 1)(p + 1)no. of prime factors

Composite Numbers Natural numbers greater than 1 which are not prime, are known as composite numbers The number 1 is neither prime number nor composite number Two

numbers which have only '1' the common factor are called co-primes (or) relatively prime to each other e.g. 3 and 5 are co primes

Assignment
Discuss and post solution 1. If a number 774958A96B is to be divisible by 8 and 9, the values of A and B, respectively, will be? 2. The number of positive integers not greater than 100, which are not divisible by 2, 3 or 5 is ? 3. The solution set (x, y) for the system of equations log2 xy = 5 and log1/2 (x/y) = 1, is 4. Find the remainder when 51138 is divided by 7. 5. The highest power of 2 in 10! + 11! + 12! + 13! + ...+ 1000! is ? 6. If x is an odd number, what will be the remainder if x3 x + 1 is divided by 24? 7. How many consecutive zeros would be there at the end of 626! - 625!? 8. A certain number when divided by 899 leaves the remainder 63. Find the remainder when the same number is divided by 29. 9. Five digit numbers are formed using only 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 exactly once. What is the difference between the maximum and minimum number that can be formed? 10. If p is any three digit number and q is any number obtained with any type of permutations of the digits of p, then p q is always divisible by?

Mensuration
Mensuration Basics

Space Figure

A space figure or three-dimensional figure is a figure that has depth in addition to width and height. Everyday objects such as a tennis ball, a box, a bicycle, and a redwood tree are all examples of space figures. Some common simple space figures include cubes, spheres, cylinders, prisms, cones, and pyramids. A space figure having all flat faces is called a polyhedron. A cube and a pyramid are both polyhedrons; a sphere, cylinder, and cone are not. Solids Solids are three-dimenisonal objects, bound by one or more surfaces. When plane surfaces bound a solid, they are called its faces. The lines of intersection of adjacent faces are called edges of the solid. For any regular solid with plane surfaces: Number of faces + Number of vertices = Number of edges + 2 This formula is called Eulers formula. Volume Volume of solid figure is the amount of space enclosed by its bounding surfaces. Volume is measured in cubic units. Weight of a solid = Volume x Density 1 cubic meter = 10 x 10 x 10 cubic cm = 1000 cubic cm
Rectangular Parallelepiped or Cuboid

A closed box composed of three pairs of rectangular faces placed opposite each other and joined at right angles to each other, also known as a rectangular parallelepiped. The cuboid is also a right prism, a special case of the parallelepiped, and corresponds to what in everyday parlance is known as a (rectangular) "box."

Let the lengths of the sides be denoted a, b, and c. A cuboid with all sides equal (a = b = c) is called a cube, and a cuboid with integer edge lengths a

> b > c and face diagonals is called an Euler brick. If the space diagonal is also an integer, the cuboid is called a perfect cuboid. The volume of a cuboid is given by V = a b c and the total surface area is S = s(ab + bc + ca) The lengths of the face diagonals are dab =(a2 + b2) dac =(a2 + c2) dbc =(b2 + c2) and the length of the space diagonal is dabc =(a2 + b2 + c2)
Cube

A cube is a special case of a parallelepiped in which length, breadth and height are equal i.e. it is bound by six square faces.

It has 6 equal-area faces and 12 equal-length edges. If the length of one edge is l, the volume (V) of the cube is given by: V = l3 Its surface area (A) is calculated by finding the area of one square: l l = l2 ; and multiplying it by 6: 6 l2 A = 6l2
Prism

A prism is a solid figure with a uniform cross section. Here are some examples of prisms:

Rectangular based prism:

Circular based prism: (Cylinder)

Triangular based prism: The surface area of any prism equals the sum of the areas of its faces, which include the floor, roof and walls. Because the floor and the roof of a prism have the same shape, the surface area can always be found as follows: Surface area of prism = 2 x area of base + perimeter of base x H Rectangular based Base shape: Rectangle, length 'L' Area of base: L Perimeter of base: Surface area = 2LW + 2(L+W)H prism width 'W' W 2(L+W)

and

Circular Base Area Perimeter Surface

shape: of of area =

based Circle, base: base: 2R

radius

prism 'R' R 2R 2RH

Triangular based prism Base shape: Triangle: base 'b', height 'h', and sides S1, S2 and S3 Area of base: bh Perimeter of base: S1+ S2 + S3 Surface area = bh + (S1+ S2 + S3)H
Right Circular Cylinder

The base and upper face of a right circular cylinder are equal circular regions lying in parallel planes. The perpendicular distance between these parallel faces is the height of the cylinder. volume = r2h curved surface area = 2rh Total surface area of a cylinder = 2r x (r + h) 2 Volume of cylindrical shell = h(R r2) Where R is the outer radius and r is the inner radious.

Right Circular Cone

A cone is a surface generated by a family of all lines through a given point (the vertex) and passing through a curve in a plane (the directrix). More commonly, a cone includes the solid enclosed by a cone and the plane of the directrix. The region of the plane enclosed by the directrix is called a base of the cone. The perpendicular distance from the vertex to the plane of the base is the height of the cone.

In a right circular cone, the axis is perpendicular to the base. (If the axis of a circular cone is not perpendicular to the base, it is called an oblique circular cone.) The length of any line segment connecting the vertex to the directrix is called the slant height of the cone. Area of Base: B Height: h Radius of base: r Slant height: s Lateral surface area: S Total surface area: T Volume: V B = r2 s = (r2+h2) S = rs T = r(r+s) 2 V = r h/3
Frustum of a cone

The part of a right circular cone between the base and a plane parallel to the base whose distance from the base is less than the height of the cone.

Height: Radius Slant Lateral Total Volume: s S T V=

of surface surface

bases: height: area: area:

r,

h R s S T V

= = = (R +rR+r )h/3
2 2

([R-r]2+h2) (r+R)s (r[r+s]+R[R+s])

Sphere

Volume V Surface S = 4r2

= = =

4/3r3 4/3r3 4r2

Hemisphere A sphere cut by a plane passing through its center forms two hemispheres. The plane surface of a hemisphere is a circular region. Curved surface area of a hemisphere = 2r2 Total surface area of a hemisphere = 2r2 + r2

Volume

of

hemisphere

= =

3r2 2/3r2

Spherical shell If R and r are the outer and inner radius of a hollow sphere, then, Volume of the material in the spherical shell = 4/3R3- r3

Set Theory
A set is a collection of things. Absolutely anything can be considered a set. Below you'll see just a sampling of items that could be considered as sets:

Your favorite clothes A coin collection The items in a store The English alphabet Even numbers

A set could have as many entries as you would like. It could have one entry, 10 entries, 15 entries, or even an infinite number of entries. On the next page you'll find out that a set could even have no entries at all! For example, in the above list the English alphabet would have 26 entries, while the set of even numbers would have an infinite number of entries. Each entry in a set is known as an element. We'll find out more about elements in the next section. Sets are written using curly brackets ("{" and "}"), with their elements listed in between. For example the English alphabet could be written as {a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z} and even numbers could be {0,2,4,6,8,10,...} (Note: the dots at the end indicating that the set goes on infinitely) A union of two or more sets is another set that contains everything contained in the previous sets. Union is designated by the If A and B are sets then A B represents the union of A and B Example: symbol .

A={1,2,3,4,5} A B = {1,2,3,4,5,7,9,11,13}

B={5,7,9,11,13}

The intersection of two (or more) sets is those elements that they have in common. Intersection is designated by the symbol . So if A and B are sets then the intersection (the elements they both have in common) is denoted by A B. Example: A={1,3,5,7,9} The elements A B = {3,5} Subset Let A be the set of objects that you own in your home Let B be the set of objects that you own which are kept on the second floor of your home Let C be the set of objects that you own which are kept in your bedroom [Note the bedroom is own the second floor] Let D be the set of objects that you own which are kept in your bedroom nightstand Now we could say D is contained within C, which in turn is contained within B, which in turn is contained within A. This D is said to (another way set C is said to (another way set B is said to (another way set is the notion of a subset. be a subset of C since it is completely contained within C to think of this is every element of set D is also an element of C). be a subset of B since it is completely contained within B to think of this is every element of set C is also an element of A). be a subset of A since it is completely contained within A to think of this is every element of set D is also an element of C). for subset is . B={2,3,4,5,6} 3 and 5

they

have

in

common

are

The symbol So D C and C B and B A.

However if even one element of one set is not contained within the other then thy are not subsets. If A were defined as {1,2,3,4,5} and B as {3,4,5,6} then B would not be a subset of A since 6 B but 6 A. The symbol for not a subset is . We would write B A.

Probability
Tutorial
An experiment is an act for which the outcome is uncertain. Examples of experiments are rolling a die, tossing a coin, surveying a group of people on their favorite soft drink, etc... An experiment is said to be a random experiment, if it's out-come can't be predicted with certainty. Example; If a coin is tossed, we can't say, whether head or tail will appear. So it is a random experiment. A sample space S for an experiment is the set of all possible outcomes of the experiment such that each outcome corresponds to exactly one element in S. The elements of S are called sample points. If there is a finite number of sample points, that number is denoted n(S), and S is said to be a finite sample space. For example, if our experiment is rolling a single die, the sample space would be S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. If our experiment is tossing a single coin, our sample space would be S = {Heads, Tails}. Every subset of a sample space is an event. It is denoted by 'E'. e.g. In throwing a dice S={1,2,3,4,5,6}, the appearance of an event number will be the event E={2,4,6}. An event, consisting of a single sample point is called a simple event. e.g. In throwing a dice, S={1,2,3,4,5,6}, so each of {1},{2},{3},{4},{5} and {6} are simple events. Compound event: A subset of the sample space, which has more than on element is called a mixed event.e.g. In throwing a dice, the event of appearing of odd numbers is a compound event, because E={1,3,5} which

has

'3'

elements.

Equally likely events: Events are said to be equally likely, if we have no reason to believe that one is more likely to occur than the other. e.g. When a dice is thrown, all the six faces {1,2,3,4,5,6} are equally likely to come up. Exhaustive events: When every possible out come of an experiment is considered. e.g. A dice is thrown, cases 1,2,3,4,5,6 form an exhaustive set of events. Probability of an Event

If 'S' be the sample space, then the probability of occurrence of an event 'E' is defined as: P(E) = n(E)/N(S) = (number of elements in 'E'/ (number of elements in sample space 'S') Empirical Probability Finding the probability of an empirical event is specifically based on direct observations or experiences. For example, a survey may have been taken by a group of people. If the data collected is used to find the probability of an event tied to the survey, it would be an empirical probability. Or if a scientist did research on a topic and recorded the outcome and the data from this is used to find the probability of an event tied to the research, it would also be an empirical probability. Equiprobable space A sample space S is called an equiprobable space if and only if all the simple events are equally likely to occur. e.g. A toss of a fair coin. It is equally likely for a head to show up as it is for a tail. Mutually Exclusive Events E and F are said to be mutually exclusive if and only if they have no elements in common.

E.g. if the sample space is rolling a die, where S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, and E is the event of rolling an even number, E = {2, 4, 6} and F is the event of rolling an odd number, F = {1, 3, 5}, E and F are mutually exclusive, because they have NO elements in common.
Bayes' Theorem The short form of Bayes' Theorem states that if E and F are events, then

P(E|F)P(F) P(F|E) = ---------------------P(E|F)P(F) + P(E|F')P(F')

Properties of Probability 1. 0 <= P(E) <= 1 2. P(not E) = 1 - P(E) So if, P(E) = 1/4 then P(not E) = 3/4. 3. "Or" probabilities with mutually exclusive events P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B) 4. "Or" probabilities with events that are NOT mutually exclusive P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A AND B) 5. A and B are Independent Events if an only if P(A AND B) = P(A)P(B)

Examples
Example 1: Find the probability of getting a tail in tossing of a coin. Solution: Sample space S = {H,T} and n(s) Event 'E' = {T} and n(E) therefore P(E) = n(E)/n(S) = 1/2 = = 2 1

Example 2: A glass jar contains 6 red, 5 green, 8 blue and 3 yellow marbles. If a single marble is chosen at random from the jar, what is the probability of choosing a red marble? a green marble? a blue marble? a yellow marble? Solution: Outcomes: The possible outcomes of this experiment are red, green, blue and yellow. Probabilities: P(red) = number of ways to choose red/total number of marbles =

6/22 P(green) = P(blue) 8/22 =

3/11

number of ways to choose green/total number of marbles 5/22 number of ways to choose blue/total number of marbles = = 4/11 number of ways to choose yellow/total number of

P(yellow) = marbles = 3/22

Example 3: A man can hit a target once in 4 shots. If he fires 4 shots in succession, what is the probability that he will hit his target? Solution: The man will hit the target even if he hits it once or twice or thrice or all four times in the four shots that he takes. So, the only case where the man will not hit the target is when he fails to hit the target even in one of the four shots that he takes. The probability that he will not hit the target in one shot = 1 - 1/4 = 3/4 Therefore, the probability that he will not hit the target in all the four shots =3/4 x 3/4 x 3/4 x 3/4 = 81/256 Hence, the probability that he will hit the target at least in one of the four shots = 1 81/256 = 175/256 . Example 4: What is the probability that the position in which the consonants appear remain unchanged when the letters of the word Math are re-arranged? Solution: The total number of ways in which the word Math can be rearranged = 4! = 4*3*2*1 = 24 ways. Now, if the positions in which the consonants appear do not change, the first, third and the fourth positions are reserved for consonants and the vowel A remains at the second position. The consonants M, T and H can be re-arranged in the first, third and fourth positions in 3! = 6 ways without the positions in which the positions in which the consonants appear changing.

Therefore, the required probability = 3!/4! = 6/24 = 1/4

Assignment
Discuss and post solutions 1. Out of two-thirds of the total number of basket-ball matches, a team has won 17 matches and lost 3 of them. What is the maximum number of matches that the team can lose and still win three-fourths of the total number of matches, if it is true that no match can end in a tie? 2. 4 people played a game of chess, where each one plays every other player. What is the maximum number of points that any player could gather if every win gets him 1 point ? 3. From a pack of 52 cards, all face cards are removed and four cards are drawn. Then the probability that they are of different suit and different denomination is 4. Five balls of different colours are to be placed in three boxes of different sizes. Each box can hold all five balls. The number of ways in which we can place the balls in the boxes so that no box remains empty is ? 5. How many arrangements can be made of the letters of the word DRAUGHT the vowels never being separated? 6. If the integers m and n are chosen at random from integers from integers 1 to 100 with replacement, then the probability that a no. of the form 7m + 7n is divisible by 5 equals?

Data Interpretation
Data Interpretation Basics

Data Interpretation as the name suggests tests your skills to understand data presented in different forms like bar graphs, tables, charts, line graphs etc. The questions are given with a set of data and candidate is required to deduce the required results from the data set. In DI section the most important thing that an individual must be able to do is to calculate fast and accurately. Adequate practice should generally set an individual well on course for cracking this section.

Candidate should focus on the question selection first. One should choose problems with graphs or tables that are easy to comprehend and with numerical that are easy to work with. Most of the times there are some problems that are really tough to understand or require a really difficult set of calculations to solve. These types of problems are deliberately included to limit the speed. These should be avoided. So keep a track of how many such questions you have attempted. Get your basic concepts right. You must be able to understand all the basic forms of representing data as well as the basic methods of calculation needed to crack the problems. You need to first effectively interpret the data before being able to solve the problem. Ensure that you read the graphs and tables correctly and dont miss out on the footnotes. Analyse if you are doing this step correctly. Read the questions, understand them and calculate. Depending on the options you need to select the accuracy level.
Basic graph types

A bar chart or bar graph is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values that they represent. Bar charts are used for comparing two or more values that were taken over time or on different conditions, usually on small data sets. The bars can be horizontally oriented (also called bar chart) or vertically oriented (also called column chart). Sometimes a stretched graphic is used instead of a solid bar. It is a visual display used to compare the amount or frequency of occurrence of different characteristics of data and it is used to compare groups of data.

A pie chart (or a circle graph) is a circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating relative magnitudes or frequencies. In a pie chart, the arc length of each sector (and consequently its central angle and area), is proportional to the quantity it represents. Together, the sectors create a full disk. It is named for its resemblance to a pie which has been sliced.

A line graph is most useful in displaying data or information that changes continuously over time.

Examples

One of the graph below represent the market share of five different brands of T.V sold in a particular city. The total number of TV sold was 25,000. The other one shows the unit sales price and the Tax the brand is subjected to. Tax is calculated on the sales price.

1. What is the difference in number of units sold by the most popular brand and the second most popular brand ?
a. 800 b. 1000 c. 1200 d. 1400

e. 1600

Solution: Most popular Brand is Brand D and after that it is Brand C as is clear from the Pie chart. Brand D sold = 26 % and Brand C sold = 22 % . So the difference is 4% of Total Market = 25,000*4/100 = 1,000.

2. Which Brand earned the maximum revenue before Tax ? a. A b. B c. C d. D e. E

Solution: Revenue earned Before tax = Number of Units sold * Unit Price Revenue earned by Brand A = (18*25000/100 ) * 14,500= 65,250,000 Revenue earned by Brand B = (14*25000/100 ) * 16,000= 56,000,000 Similarly the revenue earned by C = 66,000,000. Revenue earned by D= (26*25000/100)*13,000= 84,500,000 Revenue earned by E= 67,500,000 So maximum revenue is earned by D

3. Which Brand earned the maximum revenue after Tax ? a. A b. B c. C d. D e. E

Solution: Revenue earned after Tax = Revenue earned before Tax -Tax SALES Tax % Tax paid Revenue BRAND A 65,250,000 149,135,000 BRAND B 56,000,000 116,160,000 BRAND C 66,000,000 106,600,000 BRAND D 84,500,000 97,605,000 BRAND E 67,500,000 117,425,000 TOTAL 339,250,000 36,925,000

56,115,000 49,840,000 59,400,000 76,895,000 60,075,000 302,325,000

So Brand D earned the maximum revenue after Tax

Logical Reasoning
Logical Reasoning is one of the toughest topis in CAT exam. A paragraph is given and student is required to answer the questions that follow based on the information given in the paragraph. They have to use their logic to interpret the question and answer it correctly. You must read the question and directions thoroughly before answering. You must develop the habit of reasoning based on the following guidelines. In logic, three kinds of logical reasoning can be distinguished: deduction, induction and abduction. Given a precondition, a conclusion, and a rule that the precondition implies the conclusion, they can be explained in the following way:

Deduction means determining the conclusion. It is using the rule and its precondition to make aconclusion. Example: "When it rains, the grass gets wet. It rains. Thus, the grass is wet." Induction means determining the rule. It is learning the rule after numerous examples of theconclusion following the precondition. Example: "The grass has been wet every time it has rained. Thus, when it rains, the grass gets wet." Abduction means determining the precondition. It is using the conclusion and the rule to support that the precondition could explain the conclusion. Example: "When it rains, the grass gets wet. The grass is wet, it must have rained."

Examples:

1. Whenever A sings, B gets a headache and C complains. If C is not complaining, which of the following statements must be true? (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) is singing and B has a headache. B has a headache but A is not necessarily singing. A is singing, but B does not necessarily have a headache. A has been singing and B is beginning to get a headache. A is not singing. A

Solution: Since if A sings, then B gets a headache and C complains. Then we're told that C is not complaining. Using the contrapositive, we get the following logic: If B doesn't have a headache and/or if C isn't complaining, then A must not be singing. So if C is not complaining, then there is no way that A is singing, and choice (E) is the answer. 2. A will eat the apple if B does not cook.

Based only on the information above, which of the following must be true? (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) A If If If If will not eat the apple A did not eat the apple, A eats the apple, then B B does not cook, A will not A did not eat the apple, B if B did eat did B did not the not cooks. cook. cook. apple. cook.

Solution: The sentence can be rearranged to read: "If B does not cook, then A will eat the apple. Whenever a Logical Reasoning question gives you an "If...then"sentence, the only thing that must be true is called the "contrapositive"take the opposite of each half of the statement, and flip the two halves. For this question, the contrapositive is "If A did not eat the apple, then B did cook." Choice (B) matches this perfectly.

Data Sufficiency
Data Sufficiency or DS questions in CAT exam requires the candidate to reason quantitatively unlike the quant or di section where the ability to manipulate numbers is tested. DS questions consist of a question followed by two statements. Student is required to choose whether the information in statements (single or

together) is sufficient to answer the question. You need to evaluate rather than calculate. The answer choices are the same everytime so you can memorize the choices and spend more time analyzing the question rather than focussing on choices. The choices are A. Statement 1 alone is sufficient but statement 2 alone is not sufficient to answer the question asked. B. Statement 2 alone is sufficient but statement 1 alone is not sufficient to answer the question asked. C. Both statements 1 and 2 together are sufficient to answer the question but neither statement is sufficient alone. D. Each statement alone is sufficient to answer the question. E. Statements 1 and 2 are not sufficient to answer the question asked and additional data is needed to answer the statements. Tips to solve DS questions 1. learn the answer choices. 2. read the question thoroughly and make any deductions from the data. 3. focus and think about what you need to solve in the question. 4. consider the statements one at a time. 5. do not actually solve the problem Examples: Use the following answer choices for the questions below.

1. Statement 1 alone is sufficient but statement 2 alone is not sufficient to answer the question asked. 2. Statement 2 alone is sufficient but statement 1 alone is not sufficient to answer the question asked. 3. Both statements 1 and 2 together are sufficient to answer the question but neither statement is sufficient alone. 4. Each statement alone is sufficient to answer the question. 5. Statements 1 and 2 are not sufficient to answer the question asked and additional data is needed to answer the statements.

1. If the average size of 3 accounts is $1 million, is the smallest account less than $500,000? 1. 2. a. b. c. d. e. E The One largest of the account accounts is is $1.3 $0.7 million. million. A B C D

Solution: (c) Recall that the sum of the 3 accounts is $3 million. If the largest is $1.3 million, then the sum of the other two accounts must be $1.7 million. Since the second-largest account could be $1.29 million, then the smallest account could be $0.41 million, which is less than $0.5 million. Hence, Statement 1 by itself is insufficient. However, if we know the value of 2 of the variables (as we do if we read statements 1 and 2 together), and the average value of all three variables (as we do from reading the question), then we can determine the value of the third variable. If the largest account is worth $1.3 million and the smallest is worth $0.7 million, then the third variable must be $1.0 million. With the value of all 3 variables, we can quickly determine the value of the smallest variable. Statements 1 and 2 together give us the information needed to answer the question. 2. Is 1. 2. a. b. c. d. e. E the product of of x the x and y is is greater greater greater than than than 60? 60. 2. A B C D

The sum Each of

and y variables

Solution: (c) Statement 1 by itself is not sufficient. One of the two variables could be a small fraction. (Think of 500 and 0.01.) Statement 2 by itself could yield the product of 3 and 4. However, the information from both statements is taken together, we can definitively state that the answer to this question is "true."

Reading Comprehension
Tutorial
Introduction

Reading Comprehension or RC popularly is an important part of english section in CAT or other mba exams. You will be given 2-4 RC passages each containing 3-4 questions. RC section requires you to read a passage of 500 or more words and than answer questions that follow. RC question requires a lot of reading, understanding the underlying concept of passage and remembering the key points in the passage. You should have good command over vocabulary and time management. As the passages are quite long you do not want to spend entire time in reading passage and leaving no time for answering questions or attempt other parts of paper. Tips to improve RC skills 1. Read a lot. You must read lot of newspapers, books, articles to increase your reading skills. 2. Enhance your vocabulary. Keep a dictionary handy. Make a note of new words and try to understand their meaning. 3. Highlight, summarize and review: After going through any article, make a note of important points, summary, and review important ideas. 4. Practice and practice: You need to solve lot of RC questions to get confidence before the D day.
Examples

Directions: Questions 13 are based on the following reading passages. Read each passage carefully and then choose the best answer to each question. Answer the questions based upon what is stated or implied in the reading passage.

For many years, there has been much hand-wringing over the fate of Social Security once the baby boomers reach retirement age. Baby boomers, people born between 1946 and 1964, represent the largest single sustained growth of population in the history of the United States. It is the sheer enormity of this generation that has had economists worried as retirement beckons.According to the U.S. Census Bureau, by 2020, an estimated 80,000,000 Americans will have reached or surpassed the conventional age of retirement.With so many boomers retiring and drawing benefits but no longer paying into Social Security, many fear that the Social Security fund itself could go bankrupt. However, a study released by the American Association for Retired Persons (AARP) that examined baby boomers plans for retirement found that for the most part, this generation is not expected to adhere to the conventional retirement scheme, a fact that may please the worriers in Washington, DC. In its survey, the AARP broke baby boomers into different categories based on their financial standing, degree of preparedness for retirement, and optimism toward the future. The AARP found that of all groups surveyed, only 13% planned to stop working altogether once they reached retirement age; the remaining 87% planned to continue working for pay. The reasons to continue working varied among the different groups. For some, the plan to continue working is a financial decision. Between 25% and 44% of respondents reported they are not financially prepared to retire and will therefore continue working past retirement age. For the remainder of those planning to work past their mid to late 60s, the decision is based on long-held goals to start a business and/or the desire to stay active in their industry or community. Eventually, most baby boomers will need to stop working as they progress into their 70s, 80s, and beyond. But with such large numbers planning to continue working, thereby continuing to pay into the Social Security fund, perhaps Social Security will be able to withstand the end of the baby boom and continue to be a safety net for future generations. 1. Which of the following titles would be most appropriate for this passage?

a. The AARP and Social b. Baby Boomers Bankrupt Social c. Baby Boomers Will Work for Pay Beyond d. Worries about Social Security May Be e. Economists Fear Baby Boomers Impact on Social Security

Security Security Retirement Unfounded

Solution: This choice offers the best title for the passage, which explains why the worriers in Washington may have nothing to fear after all. Choice a is incorrect because the passage is not about the relationship between the AARP and Social Security or the AARPs position on Social Security issues. Choice b is incorrect because the passage actually argues the opposite: that most baby boomers will continue to pay into Social Security long after the traditional age of retirement. Choice c is true, but it is just one specific fact cited within the passage to support the main idea. Choice e is also true, but the passage explains why the economists fears are unfounded. 2. According to the author, baby boomers are not likely to bankrupt the Social Security fund primarily because a. the government has raised the official age for retirement. b. most baby boomers are financially prepared for retirement. c. most baby boomers plan to work past retirement age. d. most baby boomers are active in their communities. e. most baby boomers will not need supplemental income. Solution: The AARP study cited in the third paragraph reveals that 87% of the baby boomers surveyed planned to continue working for pay once they reach retirement age. The passage does not state that the government raised the retirement age (choice a). Choices b and e are incorrect because the AARP survey also notes that between 25% and 44% of respondents reported they are not financially prepared to retire, which means they will need supplemental income. A desire to remain active in their community (choice d) is one of the reasons many baby boomers will continue to work, but it is the fact that they will continue to work (not why they will continue to work) that allays the fear of a bankrupt system. 3. The author cites statistics from the AARP survey primarily to a. support the assertion that baby boomers are the largest group of retirees in U.S. history. b. show that baby boomers will not retire en masse as feared.

c. suggest that better financial planning is needed for the elderly. d. show how optimistic baby boomers are about their future. e. show the correlation between retirement age and optimism. Solution: The survey statistics demonstrate that most baby boomers will keep working, so the Social Security system will not encounter a sudden massive strain as baby boomers reach the retirement age. Choice a is incorrect because although the number of baby boomers is cited (80,000,000), no other figure is cited in comparison. One statistic from the survey suggests that many baby boomers have not planned well for retirement (choice c), but several other statistics are also cited, so this cannot be the main purpose. The passage states that the survey was designed in part to measure baby boomers optimism (choice d), but the passage does not cite results of questions in that category. Choice e is incorrect for the same reason.

Verbal Reasoning
Tutorial
Introduction

Verbal Reasoning is one of the toughest section in cat english paper. These type of questions require a lot of practice and planning before the actual exam. Mostly Facts, inference and judgment questions are asked in this section apart from reasoning questions similar to critical reasoning. Tips to solve facts, inference and judgment questions are:

Always work with answer options: Locate a statement that is definitely a Fact or a Judgement, then eliminate the options that do not classify it as such. Words that are used in the comparative or the superlative degree often qualify statements as Inferences. For example highest, taller, largest, heaviest etc can only be arrived at after verifying data, hence the statements involved are inferences. Identify where the emphasis is in the sentence structure. It is possible that the latter part of a statement may be a Fact but the emphasis is on the former part which is a Conclusion derived from that Fact. Clearly, such a statement qualifies as an Inference.

Statements that use a lot of adjectives and adverbs; words like 'should', 'must,' 'only' , 'never', 'always', 'all' etc. have a tendency to be Judgements.
Examples

Instructions:

Classify

each

of

the

statements

into:

F. Facts, which deal with the pieces of information that one has heard, seen or read, and which are open to discovery or verification or I. Inferences, which are conclusions drawn about unknown, on the basis of the known or J. Judgements, which are opinions that imply approval or disapproval of persons, objects, situations and occurrences in the past, the present or the future. 1. Given the poor quality of service in the public sector, the HIV/AIDS affected should be switching to private initiatives that supply anti-retroviral drugs (ARVs) at a low cost. 2. The government has been supplying free drugs since 2004, and 35000 have benefited upto now - though the size of the affected population is 150 times this number. 3. The recent initiatives of networks and companies like AIDSCare Network, Emcure, Reliance-Cipla-CII, would lead to availability of much-needed drugs to a larger number of affected people. 4. But how ironic it is that we should face a perennial shortage of drugs when India is one of the world's largest suppliers of generic drugs to the developing world. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) JFIJ JIIJ IFIJ IFFJ JFII

Solution: The given options require you to evaluate statement 1 as either a Judgement or an Inference. 'Given the poor quality of services in the public

sector...' is more of a Judgement than an Inference. What constitutes poor quality can differ from person to person. Based on this, the conclusion "should be switching..." is clearly an opinion and establishes statement 1 as a Judgement. This eliminates option 3 and 4. The numbers in statement 2 are a result of direct verification. Hence, statement 2 is a Fact. This eliminates option 2. Evaluating options 1 and 5, both of which have statement 3 as an inference, one has to now establish whether statement 4 is an Inference or a Judgement (as per options 1 and 5). "...how ironic it is..." can neither be verified nor is it verifiable through facts. Statement 4 is thus a Judgement. Hence, the correct answer is option 1.

SYLLABUS
Cat Exam tests students on various parameters and topics. Cat 2009 will be online but the overall structure and syllabus will remain the same. It mostly consists of quantitative ability, data interpretation and english multiple type questions. Here is the syllabus for cat examination.

CAT Syllabus 2010

QUANTITATIVE:

Geometry, (Lines, angles, Triangles, Spheres, Rectangles, Cube, Cone etc) visit tutorial Ratios and Proportion, Ratios, Percentages, In-equations visit tutorial Quadratic and linear equations visit tutorial Algebra visit tutorial Profit & Loss visit tutorial Averages, Percentages, Partnership visit tutorial Time-Speed-Distance, Work and time visit tutorial Number system: HCF, LCM, Geometric Progression, Arithmetic progression, Arithmetic mean, Geometric mean , Harmonic mean, Median, Mode, Number Base System, BODMAS visit tutorial

Mensuration, Alligation & Mixtures, Work, Pipes and Cisterns visit tutorial Simple Interest & Compound Interest Set Theory, Venn Diagram visit tutorial

Instalment Payments, Partnership, Clocks Probability, Permutations & Combinations visit tutorial Topics like Trigonometry, Vectors, Binomial Expansion, Co-ordinate geometry, Logarithm, Calendar, Maxima & Minima Progression, Surds & Indices and Complex numbers are less likely to be there in CAT , MAT etc but are likely to be there in JMET. DI AND REASONING :

Data Interpretation based on text, Data Interpretation based on graphs and tables. visit tutorial Graphs can be Column graphs, Bar Graphs, Line charts, Pie Chart, Graphs representing Area, Venn Diagram, etc. Critical reasoning, Visual reasoning, Assumption-Premise-Conclusion, Assertion and reasons, Statements and assumptions, identifying valid inferences , identifying Strong arguments and Weak arguments, Statements and conclusions, Cause and Effect, Identifying Probably true, Probably false, definitely true, definitely false kind of statement, Linear arrangements, Matrix arrangements.

Puzzles, Syllogisms, Functions, Family tree - identifying relationship among group of people, Symbol Based problems, Coding and decoding , Sequencing , identifying next number in series, etc. ENGLISH :

Comprehension of passage ( Poems can also come). visit tutorial Verbal Reasoning, Syllogisms , Contextual usage, Analogies, Antonyms, Fill In the Blanks, Jumbled paragraphs with 4 or 5 sentences, Jumbled paragraphs (6 sentences with first and last fixed), visit tutorial

Sentence Correction, Foreign language words used in English, Sentence completion, Sentence correction, odd man out, idioms, one word substitution, Different usage of same word etc. GK/GA/BA :

Current Affairs, Business, Punch line of companies, Top officials of big companies, Major corporate events Famous award and prizes World Records Books and authors Science, History, Geography, International organisations Important quotations Social issues, Sports, Finance, Automobiles, Entertainment, Politics etc.