Chapter No 2

Optical Losses
Reflection:

When a ray of light approaches a smooth polished surface and the light ray bounces back,
it is called the reflection of light.
Here, the angle of incidence and angle of reflection are with respect to normal to the
reflective surface.

Refraction:

Light refracts whenever it travels at an angle into a substance with a different refractive
index (optical density).
This change of direction is caused by a change in speed. For example, when light travels
from air into water, it slows down.
 Total Internal Reflection(TIR):

Total internal reflection refers to the complete reflection of a ray of light within a given
medium from the surrounding surface. Here, the ray of light continues to be reflected
within the medium (glass, water etc.) without being refracted off
Different media have different densities.
Because of the different properties between different media, light travelling from one
media to another not only changes speed (travelling differently in different media) but is
also refracted (bent). The image below will help understand refraction better.

n1 – water

n2 – air

ᶱ1 – angle of incident ray (Incident ray is the ray that strikes the surface)
ᶱ2- angle of refracted ray (refracted ray is the ray that is transmitted to the second medium)
As a result of the differences in density and thus the refractive index between the two
media, the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction are always different. In this case,
the angle of incidence is smaller (due to higher density of water) while the angle of
refraction tends to be larger.

ᶱ
By increasing the incident angle ( 1) in the image above, the refracted angle is also
increased further. As the incident angle continues to increase, it reaches a point where the
refracted angle forms a 90 degrees angle with the surface between the two media. This is
referred to as the critical angle. At this point, the refracted ray is not transmitted in to the
second medium (in this case air) but rather forms between thesurface of the water and the
air.

If the incident angle is increased further at this point, then the refracted angle moves from
the surface and back to the first media (water) given that it is now reflected. Here, it is no
longer the refracted ray, but a reflected ray of light. As a result, total internal reflection
occurs.
Snell’s Law:

The snell's law states that the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction is always constant,

Formula, n1sin θ1=n2sin θ2

= incident index
n1
= refracted index
n2
= incident angle
θ1
= refracted angle
θ2

Critical Angle:

The critical angle is the angle of incidence where the angle of refraction is 90°.
sinθc=n2/n1
Therefore, θc = sin-1(n2/n1)

We have:

θc = The critical angle.

n 2 = refraction index.
n 1= incident index.

Numerical Aperture:

It is defined as the light gathering(collecting) ability of an optical fiber and is given by the
sine of the maximum angle a ray entering the fiber can have with the axis of the fiber and still
propagate by internal reflection.
Formula :

Numerical Aperture= = n0 sinθa

Acceptance Angle:
It defines the maximum angle in which external light rays may strike the axis of fiber core
through air and still propagate down the fiber.

Acceptance Cone:
It is defined as the range of angles for rays to be propagated by total internal reflections.

Splicing Techniques

A permanent joint formed between two individual optical fibers in the field or factory is
known as a fiber splice.

There are three types of splicing techniques:

1) Fusion splice
2) V-groove splice
3) Elastic tube splice

Fusion Splice:
It is accomplished by applying localized heating i.e by a flame or an electrical arc at
interference between two butted, pre aligned fiber ends.
This technique involves heating of two prepared fiber ends to their fusing point by applying
sufficient axial pressure between the two optical fibers. For heating most widely source is
electric arc. Following are steps for fusion process :

1. It is a technique, which involves the rounding of the fiber ends with a low energy
discharge before pressing the fibers together.
2. By moving movable block, with proper pressure two fibers are pressed together.
3. Then there will be accomplishment of splice.

Advantages:

 Fusion splicing provides high quality joint.

 It has low insertion loss below 0.03 dB.
 It has small size of splice.

Disadvantages:

 The heat used for fusion weakens the fiber in the vicinity of the splice.
 Tensile strength is 30% of uncoated fiber which is low.

V-groove Splice:
In this technique V-grooves are used to secure the fibers to be joined. This method utilizes a
V-groove into which the two prepared fiber ends are pressed.
The V-groove splice gives alignment of the prepared fiber ends through insertion in the
groove.
The splice is made permanent by securing the fibers in the V-grooves with epoxy resin.
V- groove splices have proved quite successful, giving joint insertion losses of around 0.1
dB.

Advantages:

 Mechanical splices require no power supplies.

 No extra tools beyond a fiber stripper and fiber cleaver are required.
 They can be used in situations where fusion splicing is not practical or impossible.

Disadvantages:

 Higher insertion loss(Typically 0.2 dB whereas in fusion splicing it is 0.02dB)

 More expensive than fusion splices

Elastic tube splice:

 The elastic tube splice shown cross sectionally in the figure below is a unique device
that automatically performs lateral, longitudinal and angular alignment.
 It splices multimode fibers with losses in the same range as commercial fusion splices,
but much less equipment and skill are needed.
 The splice mechanism is basically a tube made of elastic material with an inner diameter
just large enough to accept the optical fibers.
 When the fiber is inserted, it expands the hole diameter so that the elastic material exerts
a symmetrical force on the fiber.
 This symmetry feature allows an accurate and automatic alignment of the axes of the
two joined fibers.
 Transparent adhesive (e.g. epoxy resin) is injected through a transverse bore in the
capillary to give mechanical sealing and index matching of the splice.
 A wide range of diameters can be inserted into the elastic tube.
Losses in optical fiber:

Absorption loss:-

Absorption loss in optical fiber is analogous to power dissipation in copper cables. Impurities
in the fiber absorb light and convert it to heat. Absorption losses in optical fibers are due to
three different mechanisms –

i. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition.

ii. Extrinsic absorption by impurities in the glass material.
iii. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material.

Intrinsic absorption: The main cause of intrinsic absorption in infrared region is the
characteristic change of atomic bond.

Extrinsic absorption: it is caused by impurities introduced into the fiber such as iron nickel
and chromium are introduced into the fiber during fabrication.

Scattering loss:-

Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density fluctuations
within a fiber. Density changes are produced when optical fibers are manufactured.

Linear Scattering Losses:

Linear scattering occurs when optical energy is transferred from the dominant mode of
operation to adjacent modes. It is proportional to the input optical power injected into the
dominant mode.
Linear scattering is divided into two categories: Mie scattering and Rayleigh scattering.
Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density fluctuations
within a fiber. Density changes are produced when optical fibers are manufactured.
During manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density areas, relative to the
average density of the fiber, are created. Light traveling through the fiber interacts with the
density area. Light is then partially scattered in all directions Rayleigh scattering is the main
loss mechanism between the ultraviolet and infrared regions. Rayleigh scattering occurs
when the size of the density fluctuation (fiber defect) is less than one- tenth of the operating
wavelength of light. Loss caused by Rayleigh scattering is proportional to the fourth power of
the wavelength. As the wavelength increases, the loss caused by Rayleigh scattering
decreases.
If the size of the defect is greater than one-tenth of the wavelength of light, the scattering
mechanism is called Mie scattering. Mie scattering, caused by these large defects in the fiber
core, scatters light out of the fiber core. However, in commercial fibers, the effects of Mie
scattering are insignificant. Optical fibers are manufactured with very few large defects.

Non- Linear Scattering Losses:

Scattering loss in a fiber also occurs due to fiber non-linearity’s i.e. if the optical power at the output
of the fiber does not change proportionately with the power change at the input of the fiber, the optical
fiber is said to be operating in the non-linear mode. Non-Linear scattering is divided into two
categories: Stimulated Raman Scattering and Stimulated Brillouin Scattering.

Dispersion Loss:

Dispersion causes broadening of transmitted light pulse as they travel along the channel.
Dispersion of transmitted light signal causes distortion for both digital and analog
transmission along fiber.
Each pulse broadens and overlaps with its neighbours eventually becoming
indistinguishable at the receiver input. It limits the maximum bandwidth attenable with a
particular fiber.
Dispersion is related to the difference between the transit time of signal arriving at the
output.
Intramodal dispersion :
Intramodal dispersion is also called chromatic dispersion. It occurs in all types of optical
fibers. It results from the finite spectral line width of the optical source.
Optical sources do not emit just a single frequency but band of frequencies. There may be
propagation delay differences between the different spectral components of the transmitted
signal.
Delay in propagation causes broadening of each transmitted mode and so called intramodal
dispersion.
Intermodal dispersion :
It results from the propagation delay differences between modes within a multimode fiber
travel along the channel with different group velocities. The pulse width at output is
dependent upon the transmission times of the slowest and fastest modes.
Multimode step index fibers exhibit a large amount of intermodal dispersion. It may be
reduced by adapting an optimum refractive index profile.
In pure single mode there is no intermodal dispersion. In multimode graded index fibers is far
less than that obtained in multimode step index fibers.
In multimode step index, the fastest and slowest modes propagating in it may be represented
by axial ray and the extreme meridional ray respectively. The delay difference between these
two rays when travelling in the fiber core allows estimation of the pulse broadening i.e.
intermodal dispersion.
OR
{1. Intermodal dispersion:
i. This is called as multimode dispersion.
ii. If the two light rays having same frequency follows different path while travelling
through fiber optic cable. Then these rays appear at different time period at the output.
Called as intermodal dispersion or pulse dispersion.
2. Intramodal dispersion:
Intramodal dispersion depends upon the material dispersion, waveguide dispersion and cross
product dispersion.
i. Material dispersion: It depends on material used to manufacture the fibre optic cable.
This wavelength.
ii. Waveguide dispersion:
This is related to the bandwidth and waveguide configuration.
Optical frequency of the signal changes the group velocity also get changed}

Radiation Loss:

Whenever an optical fiber undergoes a bend of finite radius of curvature, radiative losses
occurs.
These are two types of bends :

1. Macroscopic bend
2. Microscopic bend
Macroscopic bend:

Macroscopic bends have radii large compared to fiber diameter e.g. it occurs when fiber turns a
corner.
For slight bends the excess loss is extremely small.
As the radius of curvature decreases, the loss increases exponentially.
At a certain critical radius curvature loss becomes observable..

Microscopic bend :

Microbends are repetitive small-scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber axis as
shown in figure.
They are caused either by non uniformities in the manufacturing of the fiber, or by non uniform
lateral pressures created during cabling of the fiber.
In microbending the fiber curvature causes modes leaky or non guided modes in the fiber.
To minimize this loss, extrude a compressible jacket over the fiber.
When external forces are applied, the jacket will be deformed but the fiber will tend to stay
straight.
Coupling Loss:
Coupling losses are caused by imperfect physical connections.
In fiber cables coupling loss can occure at any of the following optical junctions:
Light source to fiber connection, fiber to fiber connection and fiber to photo detector
connections.
Juntion losses are most often caused by one of the following :

1. Lateral (Axial) misalignment

2. Gap Misalignment
3. Angular Misalignment
4. Imperfect surface Finish

Axial misalignment:
The lateral or axial misalignment between two pieces of the adjoining fiber cable
Gap misalignment:
The farther apart the fibers, the greater will be fiber loss.
Angular misalignment:
If the angular displacement is less than 20 off from perpendicular, the loss will typically be
less than 0.5dB
Imperfect Surface finish:
The ends of the two adjoining fibers should be highly polished and fit together
OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer)

i) An optical time Domain Reflectometer is used in fiber optics to measure the time and
intensity of light reflected on an optical fiber.
ii) It is used as a trouble shooting device to find faults, splices, and bends in fiber optic
cables.
iii) Light loss is important in fiber optic cables because it can interfere with the transmission
of data.
iv) An OTDR can detect such light loss and pinpoint trouble areas making repair easy.
v) The more quickly trouble areas are identified and addressed the less fiber optic network
will suffer from data transfer problems.
vi) An OTDR test can take anywhere along the length of fiber from ten seconds to three
minutes.
vii) It emits a high-power pulse that hits the fiber and bounces back.
viii) What comes back is measured, factoring in time and distance, and results is ‘trouble
spots’ which radiate and can be targeted for repair.
ix) Some OTDR systems are equipped with PC-linking capabilities, that the data recorded
during testing can be downloaded to a computer for analysis and storage.

Working:

1. Above figure shows the block dia of OTDR.

2. A light pulse is lauched into the fiber in forward direction from an injected laser using
directional coupler or beam splitter.
3. Coupler couples the optical power into the tested fiber and simultaneously daviates the
backscattered power to optical receiver.
4. The backscattered light is detected by the avalanche photodiode.
5. Output of photodiode receiver drives an integrator.
6. Integrator improves the received signal to noise ratio.
7. The signal from the integrator is fed to logariyhmic amplifier and average measurements
for successive points within the fiber are plotted on chart recorder.
Applications:

1. It is used as a trouble shooting device to find faults, splices, and bends in fiber optic
cables
2. It is used in fiber optics to measure the time and intensity of light reflected on an optical
fiber.
3. It can operate over the entire range of wavelength.

OTDR Specification:

 Wavelength
 Dynamic Range
 Dead Zone
 Pulse width
 Type of network
 Type of fiber under test
 Maximum distance

Numerical Based on NA , Acceptance angle, critical angle, snell’s Law

*Refer this dia. for solving these numerical

Problem 1

let n = 1, n1 = 1.46 and n2 = 1.45 in the diagram of the optical fiber system above. Find
a) the critical angle θc at the core - cladding interface.
b) the numerical aperture N.A. of the optical fiber
c) the angle of acceptance αmax of the the optical fiber system.

Solution to Problem 1
a) θc = sin-1 (n2 / n1) = sin-1 (1.45 / 1.46) = 83.29 °
b) N.A. = √(n21 - n22) = √(1.462 - 1.452) = 0.17
c) αmax = sin-1√(1.462 - 1.452) = 9.82 °

Problem 2

We use the same values for n , n1 and n2 in the diagram of the optical fiber system above as
those used in problem 1. Let the angle of incidence of a light ray on the outside - core
interface be α = 5°. Find
a) angle of refraction β at the outside - core interface.
b) angle θ
c) and explain why this light ray will be reflected at the core - cladding interface and hence
guided along the fiber.

Solution to Problem 2

a) Angle β is found using Snell's law at the outside - core interface as follows
n sin(α) = n1 sin(β)
Substitute the given parameters from problem 1 to obtain
β = sin-1 ( sin(5°) / n1) = 3.42 °
b) Angle θ is complementary to angle β hence
θ = 90 - 3.42 = 86.58 °
c) The angle of incidence θ = 86.58 ° at the core - cladding interface is larger that the critical
angle θc = 83.29 ° calculated in problem 1 above and will therefore be totally reflected at this
interface and hence guided along the fiber.
Of course we could have answered this question by stating that since angle α = 5° is smaller
to αmax = 9.82 ° calculated in problem 1, the given light ray will be reflected at the core -
cladding interface, but the idea behind this problem is to gain better understanding of the
concept of numerical aperture and angle of acceptance of an optical fiber systems using
numerical values and calculations at each interface.

Problem 3

let n = 1 and n1 = 1.48 in the diagram of the optical fiber system above. Find n2 such that
light rays incident at an angle α greater than 12 ° are not reflected at the core - cladding and
therefore not guided along the optical fiber system.

Solution to Problem 3

In this problem, we are given αmax = 12 ° given by the formula

αmax = sin-1(√(n12 - n22)/ n)
The above is equivalent to
sin(αmax) = √(n12 - n22)/ n
Substitute αmax, n and n1 by the given values and calculate n2
n22 = n12 - sin2(αmax)
n2 = √(1.482 - sin2(12°)) = 1.465
Problem 4
Let n = 1 in the diagram of the optical fiber system above. Find n1 and n2 such that the
acceptance αmax = 10° and the critical angle at the core - cladding interface θc = 82 ° .

Solution to Problem 4

In this problem, we are given αmax and θc whose formulas are given by

And n2 sin2(alpha)= n12-n22

Take the sine of the first formula, simplify and square both sides to obtain

The second equation is equivalent to

Substitute the known values to obtain the equations

The last equation gives

Substitute the above in equation (1) and solve for n1 and n2

Substitute n , θc and αmax by their values to obtain numerical values for n1 and n2

And