Measurement Systems: Comprehensive Course Summary
Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Measurement Fundamentals
2. Systems of Units
3. Measurement Uncertainty Analysis
4. PMMC Instruments
5. AC/DC Measurements
6. DC Ammeter and Voltmeter Design
7. Static Characteristics of Measurement Systems
8. Example Problems and Solutions
1. Introduction to Measurement Fundamentals
1.1 Basic Definitions
Measurement: The process by which one can convert physical parameters to meaningful numbers.
Instrument: A device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
1.2 Measurement System
A measurement system converts an input physical quantity into an output quantifiable value. The
basic structure is:
(process) i/p → Measure System → o/p (observer)
Significance of measurement systems:
Determine quantitative values
Enable quality control
Function in system design
Facilitate process improvement
1.3 Methods of Measurement
1.3.1 Direct Method
Uses sensors in direct contact with the physical quantity being measured
Examples: Digital meter, strain gauge
1.3.2 Indirect Method
Involves processing elements
Requires calculations to derive the measurement
1.4 Elements of a Measurement System
A complete measurement system consists of four essential components:
i/p → SE → SCE → SPE → DPE → o/p
Where:
SE: Sensing Element - in direct contact with the physical quantity
SCE: Signal Conditioning Element - modifies signal (e.g., Wheatstone bridge, amplifier)
SPE: Signal Processing Element - processes signals (e.g., using algorithms)
DPE: Data Presentation Element - displays results (e.g., visual display unit)
Simplified representation:
i/p (True value) → Measurement system → o/p (Measured value)
1.5 Examples of Measurement Systems
Example showing a mercury thermometer system:
VT → SE → SCE → DPE → VM
Components:
Mercury serves as the sensing element
Glass tube confines and guides the expansion
Visual markings serve as the display element
1.6 Types of Instruments
Power requirements: Active (requiring external power) vs. Passive (self-powered)
Intelligence: Smart vs. Non-smart
Signal type: Analog vs. Digital
1.7 Calibration
Calibration involves comparing an instrument's readings against a known standard.
The calibration curve shows the relationship between input (i/p) and output (o/p), with the slope
representing sensitivity. This allows estimation of true values from measured values.
2. Systems of Units
2.1 Units and Their Importance
The standard measure of each physical quantity is the unit. Without units, measurements have no
physical meaning.
2.2 Fundamental and Derived Units
2.2.1 Fundamental Units
Primary fundamentals: Length (m), Mass (kg), Time (s)
Auxiliary fundamentals: Thermal (K), Electrical (A), Illumination (cd)
2.2.2 Derived Units
Units derived from physical laws and relationships between fundamental units.
2.3 SI Units
Table 1: Basic SI Units
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electrical current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela cd
2.4 Multiples and Submultiples of Units
Table 2: Decimal Prefixes
Name Symbol Equivalent
tera T 10^12
giga G 10^9
mega M 10^6
kilo k 10^3
milli m 10^-3
micro μ 10^-6
nano n 10^-9
pico p 10^-12
2.5 Derived Unit Examples
2.5.1 Voltage
volt = workdone/charge = Joule/coulomb = J/C = Force×distance/current×time =
Newton×meter/Ampere×second
Further breakdown:
volt = mass×acceleration×meter/current×time = mass×meter²/current×time³ = kg·m²/A·sec³
= [kg·m²·A⁻¹·sec⁻³]
2.6 Basic Physical Definitions and Units
2.6.1 Speed/Velocity
v = dx/dt
v = [LT⁻¹] basic dimensions, v = [m sec⁻¹] SI units
2.6.2 Acceleration
a = dv/dt
a = [LT⁻²] basic dimensions, a = [m sec⁻²] SI units
2.6.3 Momentum
p = mass × velocity = m × v
p = [MLT⁻¹] basic dimensions, p = [kg·m sec⁻¹] SI units
2.6.4 Force
F = dp/dt = d(mv)/dt
F = [MLT⁻²] basic dimensions, F = [kg·m sec⁻²] SI units
2.6.5 Energy
E = ∫F·dx = F·x
E = [ML²T⁻²] basic dimensions, E = [kg·m² sec⁻²] = Joule
2.6.6 Power
P = dE/dt
P = [ML²T⁻³] basic dimensions, P = [kg·m² sec⁻³] SI units, P = J·sec⁻¹
2.6.7 Electrical Potential (Voltage)
V = workdone/charge = Joule/coulomb
V = [ML²I⁻¹T⁻³] basic dimensions, V = [kg·m²·A⁻¹·sec⁻³] SI units
2.6.8 Electrical Current
I = dQ/dt
I = [Amp] SI units
2.6.9 Resistance
R = dV/dI
R = [ML²I⁻²T⁻³] dimensions, R = [kg·m²·A⁻²·sec⁻³] SI units
2.6.10 Capacitance
C = Q/V
C = [M⁻¹L⁻²I²T⁴] dimensions, C = [kg⁻¹·m⁻²·A²·sec⁴] SI units
2.6.11 Inductance
e = -L·di/dt
L = [ML²I⁻²T⁻²] dimensions, L = [kg·m²·A⁻²·sec⁻²] SI units
2.6.12 Frequency
f = cycles/second = 1/T
f = [T⁻¹] dimensions, f = [sec⁻¹] SI units
3. Measurement Uncertainty Analysis
3.1 Types of Errors
3.1.1 Static Error, Relative Error & Static Correlation
Static Error (Es):
Es = Vm - VT
Where:
Vm = Measured value
VT = True value
Relative Error (Er):
Er = |Es|/VT × 100%
Static Correction (Cs):
Cs = -Es = VT - Vm
3.1.2 Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy: How close measurements are to the true value. Precision: Repeatability of
measurements.
Example notation: X = 5 ± 0.5, where:
5 is the nominal value
±0.5 is the tolerance
Four possible measurement states:
1. Accurate and precise
2. Not accurate but precise
3. Accurate but not precise
4. Neither accurate nor precise
3.1.3 Sources of Errors
Environmental effects
Surface finish
Calibration
3.1.4 Types of Errors
Gross: Human measurement errors
Systematic: Bias errors that shift measurements consistently
Random: Unpredictable variations (precision errors)
3.1.5 Uncertainty Analysis
Total uncertainty calculated as the root sum square of individual uncertainties:
Et = √(e1² + e2² + e3²)
3.2 Example Calculations for Different Measurement Scenarios
3.2.1 Absolute Uncertainty (X₁ = 10 ± 0.01°C)
Mean value = 10°C
Uncertainty = ±0.01°C
3.2.2 Percentage Uncertainty (X₂ = 10 ± 1%)
Mean value = 10°C
Uncertainty = 1% of 10°C = ±0.1°C
3.2.3 Full Scale Deflection (X₃ = 10 ± 1% FSD, range 0-200)
Mean value = 10
Uncertainty = 1% of 200 = ±2 units
3.2.4 Statistical Analysis (X₄ = [10, 10.2, 10.1, 9.9, 10])
Arithmetic mean: X̄ ₄ = (10 + 10.2 + 10.1 + 9.9 + 10)/5 = 10.04
Standard deviation: s = √[Σ(Xi-X̄ )²/(n-1)]
4. PMMC Instruments
4.1 Structure and Components
The Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument consists of:
1. Permanent Magnet: Creates a stable magnetic field
2. Frame/Former: Usually made of aluminum
3. Wire Coil: Wrapped around the frame
4. Two Springs: Control movement and provide restoring force
5. Pointer and Scale: Indicate the measurement
6. Metal Cylinder: Inside the frame to concentrate the magnetic field
4.2 Operating Principle
The PMMC operates on electromagnetic principles:
Current flowing through the coil in a magnetic field creates a force
This force causes rotation of the coil proportional to the current
The pointer moves across a scale to indicate the measurement
Force formula:
F = B·I·L·sinθ
Where:
F = Force on the conductor
B = Magnetic field strength (Tesla)
I = Current through the wire
L = Length of wire in the magnetic field
θ = Angle between field and current direction (typically 90°)
4.3 Torques in PMMC Instruments
4.3.1 Deflecting Torque (Td)
Td = F·w = B·I·L·w = B·I·A
Where:
w = Width of the coil
A = Area of the frame (L·w)
For N turns of the coil:
Td = B·I·A·N = G·I
Where G = B·A·N (galvanometer constant)
4.3.2 Damping Torque (TD)
TD = D·θ̇
Where:
D = Damping coefficient
θ̇ = Angular velocity
This torque is caused by eddy currents induced in the metal frame moving through the magnetic
field.
4.3.3 Control Torque (TC)
TC = CS·θ
Where:
CS = Spring constant
θ = Angle of deflection
4.3.4 Inertia Torque (TJ)
TJ = J·θ̈
Where:
J = Inertia constant
θ̈ = Angular acceleration
4.4 General Equation of Motion
The complete equation for PMMC motion:
Td = TD + TC + TJ
Substituting the expressions:
G·I = D·θ̇+ CS·θ + J·θ̈
In steady state (θ̇ = 0, θ̈ = 0):
Td = TC or G·I = CS·θ
This shows the deflection angle θ is directly proportional to the current I.
4.5 Sensitivity of the Instrument
Sensitivity = θ/I = G/CS
Alternative definition:
Sensitivity = I/θ
4.6 Damping Types and Response
Three types of damping:
1. Underdamping: Oscillates before settling
2. Critical damping: Fastest response without oscillation
3. Overdamping: Slow approach to final value without oscillation
5. AC/DC Measurements
5.1 AC Currents and Voltages
Three different types of AC waveforms:
1. Sinusoidal wave: Smooth curve resembling sine function
2. Square wave: Alternates between two fixed values
3. Triangular wave: Straight lines forming triangular patterns
5.2 Key AC Parameters
5.2.1 Angular Velocity (ω)
ω = 2πf
Where f = frequency (cycles/second or Hertz)
5.2.2 Frequency (f)
f = 1/T
Where T = period (time for one complete cycle)
Therefore:
ω = 2π/T or ωT = 2π radians (360°)
5.2.3 Sinusoidal Signal Equation
V = Vmax sin(ωt)
5.3 AC Measurement Values
5.3.1 Average Value
Vavg = ∫Vdt/T
5.3.2 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value
Vrms = √(∫V²dt/T)
For a sinusoidal wave:
Vrms = Vmax/√2
For a sine wave after half-wave rectification:
Vrms = Vmax/2
For a sine wave after full-wave rectification:
Vrms = Vmax/√2 and Vavg = 2Vmax/π
5.4 Form Factor (F.F.)
F.F. = Vrms/Vavg
5.5 Rectification
Half-Wave Rectifier (HWR): Allows only one half of the AC wave through Full-Wave Rectifier
(FWR): Converts both halves of the AC signal to the same polarity
6. DC Ammeter and Voltmeter Design
6.1 DC Ammeter Design
6.1.1 Basic DC Ammeter
PMMC instruments cannot handle large currents directly, so a parallel shunt resistor diverts most of
the current:
I = Im + Is
Where:
Im = Current through the meter
Is = Current through the shunt
The relationship between currents:
ImRm = IsRshunt
6.1.2 Multiplication Factor (M)
M = I/Im
This tells how many times larger the total current is compared to the meter current.
6.1.3 Multi-Range Ammeter
Uses different shunt resistors (R1, R2, R3) selectable via a switch.
Example calculations for an ammeter with Rm = 50Ω and full-scale deflection current Im = 1mA:
For 10mA range: Rshunt = 50/9 Ω
For 50mA range: Rshunt = 50/49 Ω
For 100mA range: Rshunt = 50/99 Ω
6.2 DC Voltmeter Design
6.2.1 Basic DC Voltmeter
Created by adding a series resistor (Rs) to the basic meter:
V = Im(Rm + Rs)
6.2.2 Voltage Multiplying Factor
M = V/Vm
6.2.3 Sensitivity (SV)
SV = Rv/V = 1/Ifs
Where:
Rv = Total resistance
Ifs = Full-scale current
6.2.4 Multi-Range Voltmeter
Uses different series resistors for different measurement ranges.
Example: For a 1000V range with Rm = 10Ω and Im = 1mA:
Rs = 99,990Ω
7. Static Characteristics of Measurement Systems
7.1 Range and Span
Range = Input Maximum - Input Minimum
Span = Input Maximum - Input Minimum
7.2 Linearity
The ideal straight line output equation:
OISL = k·I + a
Where:
k = Slope (sensitivity)
a = Intercept (can be zero)
I = Input
7.3 Non-Linearity
N(I) = Oactual - OISL
Maximum non-linearity occurs where:
dN(I)/dI = 0
7.4 Sensitivity
S = doutput/dinput = d(k·I + a + N(I))/dI
For linear systems:
S = k
7.5 Hysteresis
H(I) = O(I)↓ - O(I)↑
Where:
O(I)↓ = Output when input is decreasing
O(I)↑ = Output when input is increasing
7.6 Error Bands
The region containing all possible errors, showing both non-linearity and hysteresis.
7.7 Reproducibility
The ability to get the same output for the same input under identical conditions.
7.8 Environmental Effects
Two types of environmental effects:
1. Modifying Input: Changes sensitivity (k becomes k+kmIm)
2. Interfering Input: Adds an offset to the output
7.9 General Model
O = [k + kmIm]·I + a + ki·Ii + N(I)
Where:
kmIm = Effect of modifying inputs
ki·Ii = Effect of interfering inputs
8. Example Problems and Solutions
8.1 Voltmeter Error Analysis
Problem: A voltmeter reads 80.22V with a static error of -0.04V. Find the relative error and static
correction.
Solution:
1. True value VT = -static error + measured value = -(-0.04) + 80.22 = 80.26V
2. Relative Error (Er) = |Es|/VT × 100 = |0.04|/80.26 × 100 = 0.05%
3. Static correction = -Es = 0.04V
8.2 Pressure Transducer Analysis
Problem: A pressure transducer has input (0-10 MPascal) and output (4-20 mA). Analyze its
characteristics.
Solution:
1. Input range: [0-10] MPascal
2. Output range: [4-20] mA
3. ISL equation: o = 1.6P + 4 (where P is pressure in MPascal)
4. Maximum non-linearity: 1.5 mA (9.375% of full scale)
8.4 Example: Thermocouple Equation Analysis
Problem: A thermocouple has output E = 28.74T + 1.319×10⁻²T² + 5.07×10⁻⁴T³ for input range 0-
400°C.
Determine: a) Output range and ISL b) Non-correction factor and sensitivity at 200°C c) General
model with interfering inputs
Solution:
a) Output Range and ISL
1. Find the output at minimum and maximum input:
At T = 0: E = 28.74(0) + 1.319×10⁻²(0)² + 5.07×10⁻⁴(0)³ = 0
At T = 400: E = 28.74(400) + 1.319×10⁻²(400)² + 5.07×10⁻⁴(400)³
E = 11,496 + 2,110.4 + 32,448 = 46,054.4
2. Calculate the Ideal Straight Line:
k = (Emax - Emin)/(Tmax - Tmin) = 46,054.4/400 = 115.136
ISL: EISL = 115.136T
b) Non-linearity and Sensitivity at 200°C
1. Calculate non-linearity at T = 200:
N(200) = Eactual - EISL
Eactual = 28.74(200) + 1.319×10⁻²(200)² + 5.07×10⁻⁴(200)³
Eactual = 5,748 + 527.6 + 4,056 = 10,331.6
EISL = 115.136(200) = 23,027.2
N(200) = 10,331.6 - 23,027.2 = -12,695.6
As percentage: N(200) = (-12,695.6/46,054.4) × 100% = -27.57%
2. Calculate sensitivity at T = 200:
Sensitivity = dE/dT = 28.74 + 2(1.319×10⁻²)T + 3(5.07×10⁻⁴)T²
At T = 200: Sensitivity = 28.74 + 2(1.319×10⁻²)(200) + 3(5.07×10⁻⁴)(200)²
Sensitivity = 28.74 + 5.276 + 60.84 = 94.856
c) General Model with Interfering Inputs
The general model has the form:
E = EISL + N(T) = kT + N(T)
If subject to interfering inputs, the model becomes:
E = kT + N(T) + ki·Ii
Where:
k = 115.136
N(T) is the non-linearity function as calculated
ki·Ii represents interference effects
Block Diagram:
┌────────┐
T ────►│ k │─────┐
└────────┘ │ ┌─┐
┌┴┐ │ │
│+│───►│+│───► E
┌────────┐ └┬┘ │ │
T ────►│ N(T) │─────┘ └┬┘
└────────┘ │
│
┌────────┐ │
Ii ──►│ ki │─────────────┘
└────────┘
8.4 Uncertainty Propagation
Problem: Find the uncertainty for function y = 5a²b³ where a = 1 ± 1% and b = 5 ± 1% (FSD 0:200).
Solution:
1. Partial derivatives:
dy/da = 10ab³ = 1250
dy/db = 15a²b² = 375
2. Uncertainties:
Ua = ±0.01
Ub = ±2
3. Combined uncertainty:
Uy = √[(dy/da × Ua)² + (dy/db × Ub)²]
Uy = √[(1250 × 0.01)² + (375 × 2)²] = ±750
8.5 Function Uncertainty Analysis
Problem: Find uncertainty for function y = 4a³b³ where a = 1 ± 1% and b = 5 ± 1% (FSD 0:200).
Solution:
1. Partial derivatives:
dy/da = 12a²b³ = 1500
dy/db = 12a³b² = 300
2. Uncertainties:
Ua = ±0.01
Ub = ±2
3. Combined uncertainty:
Uy = √[(1500 × 0.01)² + (300 × 2)²] = ±600.187
This comprehensive summary covers the foundational concepts, mathematical principles, practical
applications, and problem-solving techniques central to understanding measurement systems. The
material progresses from basic definitions through complex uncertainty analysis, providing a
complete overview of the subject.
