Metrology - the scientific study of measurement. It includes all measurements depend.

A measurement standard may also

theoretical and practical aspects of measurement.
- is the branch of science dedicated to measurement,
which is defined as the process of comparing an unknown
quantity, referred to as the measurand, with a standard of a
known quantity.
Functions of Measurement Instruments
The primary function of an instrument is to measure a process
variable. While doing so, it performs several functions such as
Transmitting, Signaling, Registering, Indicating, Recording.
Transmitting – Instrument sends the information concerning the
measured quantity over some distance.
be said to store, embody, or otherwise provide a physical
quantity that serves as the basis for the measurement of the
quantity. Another definition of a standard is the physical
embodiment of a measurement unit, by which its assigned
value is defined, and to which it can be compared for
calibration purposes.
• Line Standard – length is expressed as the distance
between two lines.
• End standard – length is expressed as the distance
between two flat parallel faces.
• Wavelength standard – wavelength of monochromatic light is
used to measure length.

Transmitters are used in process control loop. Electrical measurement units

Signaling – Instruments indicates the general value or range of

values of its measured quantity.
Electrical Measuring
Symbol Description
Registering – Instrument indicates by numbers or some other Parameter Unit
symbol of discrete increments, the value of the quantity being
measured.

Indicating – An indicating instrument indicates the

instantaneous value of the variable being measured at that Unit of Electrical
time. Such an instrument normally uses a calibrated scale and Voltage Volt V or E Potential
pointer. V=I×R

Recording – Instruments makes a written record of the value of

the measured quantity against some other variable or against
time.
Unit of Electrical
The measurement systems and the instruments may be Current Ampere I or i Current
classified based upon the functions they perform. There are I=V÷R
four main functions performed by them: indicating, signal
processing, recording and control.

i. Indicating Function: This function includes supplying

information concerning the variable quantity under Unit of DC
measurement. Several types of methods could be employed Resistance Ohm R or Ω Resistance
in the instruments and systems for this purpose. Most of the R=V÷I
time, this information is obtained as the deflection of a pointer
of a measuring instrument.

ii. Recording Function: In many cases the instrument makes a

written record, usually on paper, of the value of the quantity Reciprocal of
under measurement against time or against some other Conductance Siemen G or ℧ Resistance
variable. This is a recording function performed by the G=1÷R
instrument. For example, a temperature indicator / recorder in
the HTST pasteurizer gives the instantaneous temperatures on a
strip chart recorder.

iii. Signal Processing: This function is performed to process and Unit of Capacitance
Capacitance Farad C
modify the measured signal to facilitate recording / control. C=Q÷V

iv. Controlling Function: This is one of the most important

functions, especially in the food processing industries where
the processing operations are required to be precisely
controlled. In this case, the information is used by the Unit of Electrical
instrument or the systems to control the original measured Charge Coulomb Q Charge
variable or quantity. Q=C×V

Measurement Standards - Measurement standards are those devices,

artifacts, procedures, instruments, systems, protocols, or
processes that are used to define (or to realize) measurement
units and on which all lower echelon (less accurate)
 Newtons per
N/C Electric field (E)
coulomb
Unit of Inductance
Inductance Henry L or H
VL = -L(di/dt) Volt-meter V⋅m Electric flux (Φe)

Tesla T Magnetic field (B)

Gauss G Magnetic field (B)

Unit of Power Weber Wb Magnetic flux (Φm)
Power Watts W
P = V × I or I2 × R
Hertz Hz Frequency (f)

Seconds s Time (t)

Meter / metre m Length (l)

Unit of AC
Impedance Ohm Z Resistance Square-meter m2 Area (A)
Z2 = R2 + X2
Decibel dB

Parts per million ppm

Unit of Frequency Measurement Error - Measurement Error (also called Observational

Frequency Hertz Hz Error) is the difference between a measured quantity and its
ƒ=1÷T
true value. It includes random error (naturally occurring errors
that are to be expected with any experiment) and systematic
error (caused by a mis-calibrated instrument that
affects all measurements).
Unit Name Unit Symbol Quantity

Ampere (amp) A Electric current (I) • Absolute Error: the amount of error in your
measurement. For example, if you step on a scale and
it says 150 pounds but you know your true weight is
Voltage (V, E)
145 pounds, then the scale has an absolute error of
Volt V Electromotive force (E) 150 lbs – 145 lbs = 5 lbs.
Potential difference (Δφ) • Greatest Possible Error: defined as one half of the
measuring unit. For example, if you use a ruler that
Ohm Ω Resistance (R) measures in whole yards (i.e. without any fractions),
then the greatest possible error is one half yard.
Watt W Electric power (P)
• Instrument Error: error caused by an inaccurate
Decibel-milliwatt dBm Electric power (P) instrument (like a scale that is off or a poorly worded
questionnaire).
Decibel-Watt dBW Electric power (P) • Margin of Error: an amount above and below your
measurement. For example, you might say that the
Volt-Ampere- average baby weighs 8 pounds with a margin of error
var Reactive power (Q)
Reactive of 2 pounds (± 2 lbs).
• Measurement Location Error: caused by an instrument
Volt-Ampere VA Apparent power (S)
being placed somewhere it shouldn’t, like a
Farad F Capacitance (C) thermometer left out in the full sun.
• Operator Error: human factors that cause error, like
Henry H Inductance (L) reading a scale incorrectly.
• Percent Error: another way of expressing measurement
Conductance (G) error. Defined as: percent-error
siemens / mho S
Admittance (Y) • Relative Error: the ratio of the absolute error to the
accepted measurement. As a formula, that’s:
Coulomb C Electric charge (Q) measurement error
Ampere-hour Ah Electric charge (Q)
Measurement - is the assignment of a number to a characteristic of
Joule J Energy (E) an object or event, which can be compared with other
objects or events.
Kilowatt-hour kWh Energy (E) - the process of associating numbers with physical
quantities and phenomena. Measurement is fundamental to
Electron-volt eV Energy (E)
the sciences; to engineering, construction, and other
Ohm-meter Ω∙m Resistivity (ρ) technical fields; and to almost all everyday activities. For that
reason the elements, conditions, limitations, and theoretical
siemens per foundations of measurement have been much studied. See
S/m Conductivity (σ)
meter also measurement system for a comparison of different
systems and the history of their development.
Volts per meter V/m Electric field (E)