Chapter # 1 General Theory

Instrumentation:
An instrumentation system is an assembly of various components interconnected to measure, analyze
and control the physical quantities such as electrical, thermal etc.

Purpose of instrumentation:
 To express any phenomenon in meaningful numbers.
 Control.

Block diagrams of instrumentation schemes

Open loop system:

Measurand Transducer Instrument Display

Closed loop system:

Display
Measurand Transducer Instrument

error
Control Comparator

reference

Measurand: Quantity to be measured.

Transducer: an element or device which converts one form of energy into another.

Comparator: Operational amplifiers (which is a combination of transistors) are used as comparators.

Classification of instruments
Absolute Measuring Instruments
These instruments give output in terms of physical constant of the instruments. For example Tangent
galvanometer are absolute instruments.
Secondary Measuring Instruments
These instruments are constructed with the help of absolute instruments. Secondary instruments are
calibrated by comparison with an absolute instruments. These are more frequently used in
measurement of the quantities as compared to absolute instruments, as working with absolute
instruments is time consuming. Secondary instruments are further classified as

Indicating instruments: “Indicating instruments are those which indicate the magnitude of the quantity
at the time when it is being measured.” Example: Ordinary voltmeters, ammeters and wattmeter

2. Integrating instruments: “Integrating instruments are those which measure and register by a set of
dials and pointer the total quantity over a period of specified time.”

Example: The ampere-hour meters and energy (watt-hour) meters

3. Recording instruments: “Recording instruments are those which give a continuous record of the
variation of the quantity over a selected period of time.”

Example: oscilloscope.

Performance characteristics of instruments

Instrument performance
Instrument performance is described by means of quantitative qualities which are referred to as
characteristics the two being the static and the dynamic.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:
The static characteristics of instruments are related with steady state response.

Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true value of
the quantity to be measured.

Precision: Measure of consistency or repeatability of measurement.

Least Count: The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called
its least count.

Error: the algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the quantity to be
measured is called an error.

Mathematically,

e=At – Am

e=absolute error
At=True value
Am=Measured value

:
Limiting Error is defined as the maximum deviation either in positive side or negative side in
the measurement by an instrument from the nominal value or true value.
Sensitivity: The ratio of a change in output to the change in input which causes it after the steady state
has been reached is called sensitivity.

Unit: division/volt or millimeter/volt

Threshold: Minimum value of input for which the output is large enough to be detected.

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS:
Speed of Response or Responsiveness: The speed of response of measuring instrument is defined as the
quickness with which an instrument responds to a change in the output signal.

Measuring Lag: It is delay in the response of an instrument to a change in the input signal.

Fidelity: it is the ability of a measurement system to reproduce the output in the same form as the
input. Example: if the input to the system is a sine wave, the system is said to have 100% fidelity if the
output also is a sine wave without distortion.

Over Shoot: A moving part of an instrument (for example pointer) will not assume its final deflection
position due to its mass and inertia. It usually moves beyond the steady state. The maximum amount by
which the moving parts moves beyond the study state is called the over shoot.