INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

Course code: ECEg4323

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 CHAPTER 1
REVIEW OF BASIC INSTRUMENTATION
Contents
• General principles of instrumentation
• Sensors and applications

• Signal conditioning circuits

• Signal conversion elements

• Output presentation
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 General Principles of Instrumentation
 Instrumentation: Instrumentation is a technology
of measurement.

 Instrument: Instrument is a device that transforms a

physical variable of interest (measurand) into a form
that is suitable for recording (measurement). It is a
device or mechanism used to determine the present
value of the quantity under measurement.

 Measurement: It is the result of comparison of

unknown quantity with a similar known quantity. 3
 Cont. …
 Measurement is the process of determining or

finding the size, quantity or degree of something.

The Fig.1.1, represents the process of measurement.

The unknown quantity is called a measurand and the

known quantity is called a standard, the result is in

terms of a numerical value.

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 Cont. …

Fig. 1.1: Process of measurement.

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 Cont. …
Types of Instruments
 The instrument used for measuring the physical
and electrical quantities is known as the measuring
instrument. The measuring instrument categorised
into three types;

1) Mechanical Instruments: These instruments are

suitable for measuring the static and stable
condition. But unable to respond under dynamic
and transient conditions. 6
 Cont. …
 Because these instruments have moving parts which
are rigid, heavy and bulky, and also having large
mass; due to those reason these instruments cannot
faithfully follow the rapid changes which are
involved in dynamic instruments. But they are
cheaper in cost and durable. The disadvantages of
these instruments are large mass and produce noise
pollution.

Example:- all machines.

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 Cont …
2) Electrical Instruments: The electrical instruments
are used for measuring electrical quantities likes
current, voltage, power etc. When the instrument
pointer deflection is caused by the action of some
electrical methods then it is called an electrical
instrument.

 The time of operation of an electrical instrument is

more rapid than that of a mechanical instrument.

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 Cont …
 This mechanical movement has some inertia due to
which the frequency response of these instruments
is poor. The respond time is slow i.e. approximately
0.2 sec to 0.5 sec. Examples: all meters (Voltmeter,
Ammeter, Ohmmeter, wattmeter etc.).

3) Electronic Instruments: These instruments uses

semiconductor devices. They are very fast in
response. The instrument provides the quick
response as compared to electrical and mechanical
instrument. 9
 Cont …
 In electronic devices, since the only movement
involved is that of electrons, the response time is
extremely small owing to very small inertia of the
electrons. Its monitoring time is mille seconds to
microseconds.

 It is suitable for dynamic conditions. With the use of

electronic devices, a very weak signal can be
detected by using pre-amplifiers and amplifiers.

Example: CRO
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 Cont …
 Also instruments are classified as active and
passive, analogue and digital and smart (intelligent)
and non-smart (dumb) instruments.

 Instruments are divided into active or passive based

on whether the instrument output is entirely
produced by the quantity being measured or
whether the quantity being measured simply
modulates the magnitude of some external power
source. 11
 Cont …
 In active instruments, the external power source is
required, usually in electrical form, but in some
cases, it can be other forms of energy such as a
pneumatic or hydraulic while in passive instrument
external energy not required.

 An analogue instrument gives an output that varies

continuously as the quantity being measured
changes.

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 Cont …
 The output can have an infinite number of values
within the range that the instrument is designed to
measure. Example: Deflection type pressure gauge.

 A digital instrument has an output that varies in

discrete steps and so can only have a finite number
of values. Example: Rev. counter.

 In smart instruments, after measurement, the data is

processed by intelligent instruments like
microprocessors or digital computers.
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 Cont …
 In the case of non-smart (dumb) instruments, after
measurement, the data is processed by the
observer.

Functions of Instruments
 Instruments based on its function classified as
follows:

1) Indicating Function: Information is obtained as a

deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument.
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 Cont. …
Example: The deflection of a pointer in a speedometer.

2) Recording Function: In this information is usually

obtained on paper or chart in a written form.
Example: Potentiometric type of recorder; it records
room temperature.

3) Controlling Function: In this information is used

by the Instrument or the system to control the
original measurand quantity.

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 Cont. …
Instrumentation Characteristics
There are two types of instrumentation characteristics.

INSTRUMENTATION CHARACTERISTICS

Static characteristic Dynamic characteristic

 Some applications involve the measurement of quantities
that are either constants or varies slowly with time. These
criteria are called static characteristics.
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 Cont. …
 Some measurements are concerned with rapidly varying
quantities and therefore performance criteria based upon
dynamic relations constitute the dynamic characteristics.

Static Characteristics of Instruments

 The following attributes are collectively known as
the static characteristics of instruments.

a) Accuracy: Accuracy is the closeness of the

instrument output to the true value of the measured
quantity. 17
 Cont. …
 It is also defined as the percentage deviation of
measurement from the true value.
measured value−true value x100
Percentage of deviation = (1.1)
true value

measured value−true value x100

Percentage of full scale deviation = (1.2)
maximum scale value

 Static error is the difference between measured

value and true value of measurement.

static error = measured value − true value (1.3)

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 Cont. …
b) Precision: Precision is a term that describes an
instrument’s degree of freedom from random
errors. It is defined as the ability of the instrument
to reproduce a certain set of readings within a
given accuracy.

 A highly precision instrument is one that gives same

output information, for given input information when
the reading is repeated for large number of times.
Precision in fact depends on repeatability.
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 Cont. …

Fig.1.2: Comparison of accuracy and precision.

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 Cont. …
c ) Repe at ab i li ty : R e pe a tab ili ty is defined as
the ability of the instrument to reproduce a group
of measurements of the same measured quantity,
made by the same observer, using same
instrument, under the same conditions.

d) Sensitivity: The sensitivity of an instrument or an

instrumentation system is the ratio of the change in
the magnitude of the output quantity to the
magnitude of input quantity.
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 Cont. …
 Deflection factor or inverse sensitivity is defined as
the ratio of magnitude of the input to the magnitude
of the output.
𝐢𝐧𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 ∆𝐪𝐨
𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 = = (1.4)
𝐢𝐧𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 ∆𝐪𝐢

∆𝐪𝐢
𝐃𝐞𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐫 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 = (1.5)
∆𝐪𝐨

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 Cont. …
e) Hysteresis: If the input measured quantity to the
instrument is steadily increased from a negative
value, the output reading varies in the manner
shown in curve (a). If the input variable is then
steadily decreased, the output varies in the manner
shown in curve (b).

 It is a phenomenon which depicts different output

effects when loading and unloading whether it is a
mechanical system or an electrical system and for
that matter any system. 23
 Cont. …
 The non-coincidence between loading and
unloading curves is known as hysteresis.

Fig.1.3: Instrument characteristic with hysteresis.24

 Cont. …
f ) L i n e a r i ty & N o n - l in e a r i ty

 Linearity: It is normally desirable that the output

reading of an instrument is linearly proportional to
the quantity being measured.

 Non–Linearity: It is defined as the maximum

deviation of any of the output reading from this
straight line.
𝐌𝐚𝐱.𝐝𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝐍𝐨𝐧 − 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟎 (1.6)
𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠

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 Cont. …

Fig.1.4: Instrument output characteristic. 26

 Cont. …
g) Dead Space: It is range of different input values
over which there is no change in output value.

Fig.15: Instrument characteristic with dead space.

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 Cont. …
h) Resolution or Discrimination: It is defined as the
smallest increment in input which can be detected
with certainty by an instrument is its resolution.

i) Threshold: It is defined as the minimum value

(input to instrument increase gradually to reach
minimum value) below which no output change can
be detected is called as threshold of the instrument.
 Note: Resolution defines the smallest measurable input
Change while the threshold defines smallest measurable input.
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 Cont. …
j) Range/span: It defines the minimum and
maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is
designed to measure.

k) Stability: It is the ability of an instrument to retain

its performance throughout its specified operating
life.

l) Tolerance: The maximum allowable error in the

measurement is specified in terms of some value
which is called tolerance.
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Dynamic Characteristics of Instrument
 The set of criteria defined for the instruments,
which are changes rapidly with time is called
dynamic characteristics.

a) Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity with

which a measurement system responds to changes
in the measured quantity.

b) Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a

measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without dynamic error. 30
 Cont. …
c) Dynamic Error/Measurement Error: It is the
difference between the true value of the quantity
(under measurement) changing with time and the
value indicated by the measurement system if no
static error is assumed.
d) Measuring lag: It is the retardation or delay in the
response of a measurement system to changes in
the measured quantity.

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 Factors to Select Instruments
 Performance Requirements:

 Range /Span

 Speed

 Power consumption

 Efficiency

 Size & Weight

 Test levels (Electromagnetic Interference, Vibration

& Shock).
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 Cont. …
 Sensitivity: It must be sensitive enough to produce
detectable output.

 Accuracy: The instrument should have high degree

of accuracy.

 Errors: The instrument should maintain the

expected input-output relationship as described by
its transfer function so as to avoid errors.

 Electrical Aspects: length & type of cable required

for instruments. 33
 Cont. …
 Loading Effects: The instrument should have high
input impedance and low output impedance to
avoid loading effect.

 Static Characteristics: low non-linearity, low

hysteresis, high resolution, high degree of
repeatability.

 Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The instrument

should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals
and highly sensitive to desired signals.
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 Cont. …
 Transient & Frequency response: The instrument
should meet the time-domain specifications like
rise time ,settling time, small dynamic error. It
should have flat frequency response curve and
should have wide.

 Stability & Reliability: The instrument should have

a high degree of stability to be operative during its
operation and storage life.

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Elements in an Instrumentation System

There are four elements in an instrumentation system.

They are:

1) Sensing element

2) Signal conditioning element (circuit)

3) Signal processing element

4) Data/ output presentation element

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 Cont. …

Fig.1.6: The structure of an instrumentation system.

 Sensing element: This is in contact with the

process and gives an output which depends in some
way on the variable to be measured.
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 Cont. …
 It is basically a transducer which converts one form
of energy into other form.

Examples: Thermocouple where millivolt emf.

depends on temperature and Strain gauge where
resistance depends on mechanical strain.

 Signal conditioning element (circuit): This takes

the output of the sensing element and converts it into
a form more suitable for further processing.

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 Cont. …
 The function of the signal conditioning circuits include
the following items:

 Signal amplification and filtering (operational amplifier)

 Interfacing with μP (ADC)

 Protection against high voltage and current ( Zener

diode, fuse, series resistor & Optoisolation)

 Linearization,

 Current to voltage change circuits, Resistance to voltage

change circuits (Wheatstone bridge) and error
compensation.
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 Cont. …
 Signal processing element: This takes the output
of the conditioning element and converts it into a
form more suitable for presentation.
Examples:
 Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which
converts a voltage into a digital form for input to a
computer.
 Computer which calculates the measured value of
the variable from the incoming digital data.
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 Cont. …
 Data/output presentation element: This presents
the measured value in a form which can be easily
recognised by the observer.
Examples:
 Simple pointer-scale indicator
 Chart recorder
 Alphanumeric display
 Visual display

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