1

UNIT Electrical
Measurements

CONTENTS
Part-1 Measurement System,. 1-2E to 1-17E
. .
Characteristics of Instruments,
Methods of Measurement,
Errors in Measurement and
Measurement Standards,
Measurement Error Combination

Part-2 Review of Indicating and... 1-17E to 1-27E

Integrating Instruments
PMMC Instrument, Galvanometer,
DC Ammeter, DC Voltmeter,
Series Ohmmeter

1-1E (EC-Sem-5)
1-2E (EC-Sem-5) Electrical Measurements

PART-11
Measurement System, Characteristics of Instruments, Methods of
Measurement, Errors in Measurement and Measurement
Standards, Measurement Error Combination.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
www.

Que 1.1.Discuss measurement system.

Answer
A measurement system comprises of the following elements:
1. A transducer is one which converts the measurand (quantity) into a
usable electrical output.
2. A signal conditioner, which converts the transducer output into an
electrical quantity suitable for control, recording and/or display.
3. Display or read out devices to display the required information about
the measured, generally in engineering units.
4. An electrical power supply which provides the required excitation to the
transducer and the necessary electrical power to the signal conditioners
and display devices.
5. The output signal may be an analog or digital quantity. The read out or
display device may be in analog or digital form.
Analog
Input Signal display To process
Quantity Transducerj conditioner
recording| control system
(measurand)
devices
|Analog to|
Excitation digital
power converter
supply

Digital
display/
recording
devices

To digital controller/computer interface

Fig. 1.1.1.A generalised measurement system.
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-3 E (EC-Sem-5)

Que1.2. What is an instrument ? Classify various types of

electrical instruments.

Answer
A Instrument: It is defined as a device for determining the value or
magnitude of a quantity or variable.
B. Various types of electrical instruments are:
a. Absolute instruments
1. These instruments give the magnitude of the quantity under
measurement in terms of physical constants of the instrument.
2. Examples are Tangent Galvanometer and Rayleigh's Current Balance.

b. Secondary instruments:
1. These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured
can only be measured by observing the output indicated by the
instrument.
These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absoiute
2.
instrument or another secondary instrument which has already been
calibrated against an absolute instrument.
Examples are voltmeter, glass thermometer and pressure gauge.
3
C. Deflection type:
In instruments of this type, the deflection of the
instrument provides a
under measurement.
basis for determining the quantity
effect which deflects or
2. The measured quantity produces some physical
produces a mechanical displacement
of the moving system of the
instrument.

the instrument which tries to oppose the

3. An opposing effect is built in
deflection or the mechanical displacement of the moving system.
to the deflection mechanical
The opposing effect is closely related
or
4
observed.
displacement which can be directly
its magnitude increases with the
. The opposing effect is so designed that
increase of deflection or mechanical displacement of the moving system

by the quantity under

measurement.
caused
effect equals to cause producing
6. The balance is achieved when opposing
the deflection or mechanical movement.
then be inferred from the
The value of the measured quantity
can
7.
deflection or mechanical displacement at the point of baiance.

d. Null type:
indication leads to
1. In null type of instrument, a zero or null
a
determination of the magnitude of measured quantity.
1-4E (EC-Sem-5) Electrical Measurements

2. The null condition is dependent upon some other known conditions.

3. of instruments, a null type instrument
Inattempts
contrast to
deflection type
to maintain the deflection at zero by suitable application of an
effect opposing that generated by the measured
quantity
e Analog type:
Signals that vary in a continuousfashion and take on infinite number of
values in any given range are called
analog signals.
2. The devices which produce these signals are called analog devices.

Digital type:
1. The signals which vary in discrete steps and thus take up only finite
different values in a given range are called digital
signals
2. The devices that produce such signals are called digital devices.

Que 1.3. Distinguish between the null type and deflecting type of
instruments. Give examples to support your answer.

Answer

S. No. Null type instrument Deflection type instrument|

It uses null detector, the effect In this instrument the
produced by measured quantity| quantity of the measured
and opposite effect to obtain null produces some effect which
condition. deflects the pointer against
controlling torque.
2. The accuracy is high. The accuracy is low.
3. Highly sensitive as null detector | Less sensitive.
has to cover a small range around
the null point.

4. Not suitable for the dynamic and Preferred for the

dynamic
rapid measurements. measurements.
5. The example is DC The example is moving coil
potentiometer. ammeter.

Que 14. Discuss with block diagram, generalized

instrumentation system.
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-5E (EC-Sem-5)

Answer
Generalized instrumentation system:
Quantity to Primary Variable Variable D Data Data
sensing Hconversion manipulation transmissionpresentation|
be measured element element element element element

Data conditioning element

Fig. 1.4.1. Functional elements of an instrumentation system.

A Primary sensing element:
1. The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the
primary sensing element of a measurement system.
2. This act is then immediately followed by the conversion of measurand
into an analogous electrical signal.

3 This is done by transducer. The first stage of measurement system is

known as detector transducer stage.
B. Variable conversion element:
. The output of the primary sensing element may be electrical signal of
any form. It may be a voltage, a frequency or some other electrical
parameter
2 Sometimes this output is not suited to the system. For instrument to
perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this output
to some other suitable form while preserving the information content of
the original signal.
C. Variable manipulation element:
1. The function of this element is to manipulate the signal presented to it
preserving the original nature of the signal.
2. Manipulation here means only a change in numerical value of the signal.
3. It is not necessary that a variable manipulation element should follow
the variable conversion element. It may precede the variable conversion
element in many cases.
D. Data transmission element:
1. When the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated,
it becomes necessary to transmit data from one to another. The element
that performs this function is called data transmission element.
E. Data presentation element:
1. The information about the quantity under measurement has to be
conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring control or analysis purposes.
2. The information conveyed must be in a form understandable to the
personnel or to the intelligent instrumentation system. This function is
done by data presentation element.
 1-6E (EC-Sem-5)
Electrical Measurenments
3. In case data is to be
monitored, visual display devices are needed. These
devices may be analog or
digital indicating instruments like ammeters,
voltmeters, etc.
4 In case the data is to be
recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, high
speed camera and T.V. equipment,
and digital
storage type CRT, printers, analog
computers or microprocessors may be used.
5. The final stage in a
measurement system is known as terminating
stage.
Que 1.5.What are the different characteristics being used in
measurements ?

Answer
Performance characteristics are of
two types:
1. Static characteris ics: It focuses on the measurement of quantities
which are either constantly or
very slowly varying with time. There is
linear relation with time.
2. Dynamic characteristics: It involves the measurement of
that vary with time but maintains quantities
a second order or third order
differential equation with time.
Que 1.6. What are the desirable static characteristics in a
measurement system ?

Answer
They are of different types as follows:
1 Accuracy:
i. Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or
known value.
. Forexample, if you obtain a weight measurement of 3.2 kg for a given
substance, but the actual or known weight is 10 kg, then your
measurement is not accurate. In this case, your measurement is not
close to the known value.
2. Precision:
i. Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each
other.
ii. Using the example above, if you weight a given substance five times,
and get 3.2 kg each time, then your measurement is
very precise.
3. Sensitivity:Itis the ratio of change in output with respect to change in
input.
Sensitivity= Changes in Output
Changes in Input
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-7E (BC-Sem-5)

will be shown on
Reproducibility : It indicates that the same output
the same input conditions.
5. Resolution
change in
a. Changes in output are achieved only after making a

pitch value of a specific instrument.

in output
b. Example:A voltmeterof 100 Vwith a pitch of 1V, change
smallest of 1 V.
value from 50 V to next value only when there is
Otherwise it will indicate 50 V (previous reading).
in output
6. Dead zone: A zone in which instrument nevershows change
with respect to change in input.
caused in
7. Hysteresis: Hysteresis is defined as the magnitude oferror
the output for a given value of input.
Static Errors which varies linearly with respect
to changes in
8. error:

input.
It
Drift: Itis undesirable change in output over a period of time.
means
9.
with time.
that with a given input the measured value vary

Que 1.7.List some dynamic

characteristics of instrument.

Answe
follows:
They are of different types as
to which an output changes with respect
1. Fidelity: It indicates a degree
to change in input without considering
dynamic errors.
in response, whenever there
is change
2. Lag:It indicates the delay output
in input parameters.
to rapidity ofinstrument response towards
3. Speed ofresponse : It refers
the changes in input quantities.
indicated by
4. Dynamic errors : It is difference between the value
true value changing with time, if
there is no static
instrument and the
error assumed.

Explain the methods of

measurement.
Que 1.8.

Answer
broad categories
We classify this generally into two
A. Direct measurement:
calibrated
the unknown quantity to some
1. These are made by measuring
standard and comparing the two.
that an error can be
2 It is done by human being, so it is quite possible
introduced during measurement.

in hot water container and read the

3. Example: Dip a thermometer
temperature directly.
1-8 E (EC-Sem-5)
Electrical Measurements
B. Indirect measurement
.These are made by measuring some other quantity that is in relation
with the actual unknown
quantity.
2. Example : We can measure the temperature of a point on a wall that is
filled with melting metal. Thermometer is used to measure the
temperature of the wall of furnace at outer side because it may get
damaged ifit is inside the furnace. Furnace wall temperature is related
to the interior
temperature by a certain factor.
Que 1.9. What are the various types of errors occurring in
electrical measurements ? Explain them.
OR
What are different types of systematic error ? Discuss.

Answer
Gross errors:
1. These errors occur due to human mistakes in reading instruments,
recording and calculating results of measurement.
2. These errors can be avoided
by adopting two means
1 immense care should be taken while
taking the reading and recording
the data.
1. Two, three or even more
readings should be taken for the
being measured.
quantity

Systematic errors:
The systematic errors are due to the
shortcoming of the instrument
and the characteristic of the material used in the instrument.
2 These errors cannot be determined by direct and
repetitive observations
of the measurand made each time using same technique.
3. These be located only by having
errors can
repeated measurements
under diferent conditions with different equipment and where
by an entireiy different method.
possible
4. These errors may be instrumental, environmental or observational
errors.

a. instrumental errors
1 These errors arise due to:
i. inherent shortcomings in the instrument.
. Misuse ofthe instrument.
ii. Loading effect of instrument.
2. Instrumental errors are inherent due to construction, calibration or
operations of the instrument. These errors may cause the instruments
reading too low or too high.
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-9 E (EC-Sem-5)
3. These errors can be avoided by following methods
i. Selecting a proper instrument and planning a proper procedure for
measurement.
. Calibrating the instrument carefully against a standard.
ii. Loading effect can be avoided by using an instrument intelligently and
correetly.
b.
Environmental errors:
1 The environmental errors are due to external conditions to the
measuring device. These errors are much more troublesome than
assembly errors.
2. These errors can be reduced by using the instrument in controlled
conditions of pressure, temperature, humidity in which it was originally
assembled and calibrated.
C.
Observational errors:
1. It can be due to wrong scale reading, wrong recording of data,
inaceurate estimates ofaverage reading, incorrecet conversion of units
in between consecutive readings.
2. To eliminate such observational error, one should use the instrument
with mirror, knife edged pointers etc. Now-a-days, the instruments
with digital display are available which can largely eliminate such
observational error.

e1.10. Explain limiting errors guarantee errors in

measurement.

Answer
1. Limiting errors/guarantee errors are those errors which are defined by
manufacturer.
2. Such errors exist in instruments due to utilization of different part in
manufacturing an instrument.
33. Each part has some errors, which combined together will be large.
4 Such errors can be found by comparing the instrument against the
standard quantities and accordingly are specified by the manufacturer
5. The value of limiting error largely dependent upon design constraints of
component used in instruments.

Que 1.11.|What do you understand by absolute error and relative

error ?

Answer
Absolute errors:
1 The difference between the measured value and the true value of
quantity is known as absolute error.
1-10E (EC-Sem-5) Electrical Measurements

2. Absolute error = Measured value - True value

4, A-A,
&A, Static error of measurement/absolute error
AMeasured value of quantity

ATruevalue ofquantity
Relative errors:
1. It is defined as the ratio of absolute error to the true value of the
quantity under measurement is known as relative error.
Absolute error dA,
True value
E,Relativevalue
The relative error can be positive or negative.
Que 1.12.| Differentiate between gross errors and systematic
errors. List a few ways of minimizing the effect of errors in

measurement. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
A Difference:

Gross errors Systematic errors

These errors occur due to human The systematic errors are due to
mistakes in reading instruments, the shortcoming of the instrument
recording and calculating results and the characteristic of the
of measurement. material used in the instrument.

B. Minimization the effect of errors: Refer Q. 1.9, Page 1-8E, Unit-1.

Que 1.13. A thin wire has a length of 21.7 em and radius 0.46 cm.
Calculate the volume of the wire correct to required significant

figures. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer

Given: R =0.46 cm, H=21.7 cm

To Find: Volume of wire
Volume of wire = nRH
= t (0.46)x 21.7

= 14.42 cm3
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-11 E (EC-Sem-5)

Since, the radius of the wire is given in the significant figure of two. So
the result is also rounded off in two digits.

Que 1.14. Define measurement. Calculate percentage error in

determination of time period of a pendulum given by

T 27
wherel and g are measured in : 2% and t3 h errors.

AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
Measurement: It is the process by which one can convert physical
parameters to meaningful numbers.
Numerical:

1 Given, T 2m

Percentage error in =(Percentage errorin )

+(Percentage error in g)
= I(2 %)+ (3 %)) = + 5 %
1/2
Percentage errorrin | Percentage errorin
1
15
2 96]
= t2.5 %

nominal resistance
Que 1.15. A batch of resistors each having a
of 330Q are to be tested and classified as +10% components at 25 °C.
If their temperature coefficient is - 300 ppm/ °C, calculate the
maximum and minimum resistance for these components at 100 °C.

AKTU 2014-15, Marks05

Answer
Given: R =330 2 at 25°C with error = t 10 %

Temperature coefficient = -300 ppm/°C

ToFind:Rmaxand Rnin at 100 °C

Tolerancex Nominal resistance
Absolute error =
1. 100
1-12 E (EC-Sem-5)
Electrical Measurements

10x330 = t 33 Q
100
2. Largest possible resistance at 25 °C
Max 330 + 33 =363 Q
3. Minimum possible resistance at 25 °C
min 330-33 = 297 2
4 For Rnax
nin

Resistance change per °C

-300 ppm 363

of Rax
max
1000000
x 300

= -0.108 / ° C
Temperature increase 100 °C- 25 °C =75 °C
Total resistance increase, AR =- 0.108 Q/°Cx 75 °C =- 8.12
Maximunm resistance at 100 °C =R+ AR
363 - 8.1 = 354.92
. For Rmin
Resistance change per °C

-300 ppm - 297x 300

of Rmini1000000
-0.089 Q/°C
Total resistance increase, AR =-0.089 Q/°C x 75 °C= -6.6752
Minimum resistance at 100 °C= R + AR
297-6.675 290. 3 Q
Que 1.16. | Define systematic errors in details. A batch of resistors
each has a nominal resistance of 330 S2 are to be tested and
classified
as
5% and 10%, components are specified at 25 °C, and their
temperature coefficient is - 300 ppm/°C. Calculate the maximum
and minimum resistance for these
components at 100 °C and
calculate the maximum and minimum absolute resistance
for each
case.
AKTU 2016-16, Marks 10
Answer
Systematic error: Refer Q. 1.9, Page 1-8E, Unit-1.
Numerical:
Given: R 330 Q at 25°C with errors t5 % and 10 %
Temperature coefficient=-300 ppm/C
To Find:Rma andRnin at 100°C

Case 1:When, error = t 5%

Absolute error = t 330 x 5 =t 16.5 Q

100
Rax 330+ 16.5 346.5 2 lat 25 °C1
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-13 E (EC-Sem-5)

Rmin330- 16.5 =313.5 2 lat 25 °C]

300
3. AtRmax AR/C= 346.5xn6 -
10
0.10395 Q/°C

At min AR/C= 313.5 x -0.09405 Q/°C

10
A. AT 100-25 75 °C
5. ARmay-0.10395
max
x 75=-7.79625 Q
ARmin -0.09405 x 75 =- 7.0537 2

Rmax 346.5-7.79625 338.70375 Q lat 100 °CI

min313.5-7.0537 =306.44632 lat 100 °C]

Case 2:R = 3302, at T= 25° C, error = 10 %

10
1 Absolute error = t330 x =t 33 2
100
Rmay 330 +0.1 x 330 363 2 lat 25 °C
R in 330-0.1 x 330 297 2 lat 25 °C]
Resistance change per °C:
300
3. AtRmax? AR/°C 363x- -0.10891 2/ °C
10
- 300
At Rmin' AR/ C 297x- =- 0.0891 /°C
10
Iwhere temperature coefficient =- 300 ppm/°C]
4. Temperature increase:
AT 100-25 75°C
5. Total resistanceincrease:
AR
max
a -0.1089 x 75=-8.1675 Q
ARTnin-0.0891 x 75 =- 6.6825 2
6 max 363-8.1675 354.83Q at 100 °Cl
R min 297 6.6828 290.31 Q [at 100 °C] [at 100 °C]
Que 1.17.Define systematie errors in details. A batch ofresistors
that each have a nominal resistance of 330 Q are to be tested and
classified as 10 % components at 25 °C. If their temperature
coefficient is - 300 ppm/°C, calculate the maximum and minimum

resistance for these components at 75 °C. | AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07

 1-14E EC-Sem-5) Electrical Measurements

Answer
A
Systematicerrors: Refer Q. 1.9, Page 1-8E, Unit-1.
B. Numerical : The procedure is same as Q. 1.15. Page 1-11E,
Unit-1.
(Ans. Ras 357.555 Q, Rin = 292.545 2)

Que 1.18. | Explain the term "Standards" in measurement system.

Also mention the various types of standards used in industry.

Answer
Standards of measurement:
A standard is a physical representation of unit under measurement.
2. The standards are used for the purpose of obtaining the value of a
physical quantity.
3 egthe fundamental unit of mass in the international standard (SD is
the kilogram.
The types of standards are classified by their function and
applicationas
A. International Standards
1 These are defined on the basis of international agreements.
2. These standards are designed to represent certain units of measurement
to the closest possible
aceuracy.
3. These standards are checked and evaluated
regularly against absolute
measurement in terms of the fundamental units.
4. These are maintained at the international bureau of
and
weights and
measures are not available to ordinary user.
B. Primary Standards
1 These are absolute standards of such a high
accuracy that they can be
used as the ultimate reference standards.
2. The primary standards are maintained in national
standards laboratories.
3. Main function of
primary
the secondary standards.
standard is the verification and calibration

C. Secondary Standards
1. These are the basic reference standards used in
industrial measurement
laboratories.
2. These are maintained by the industries
working on these standards and
checked locally against other reference standards in
that area.
3. A particular industry is responsible for the maintenance and
of secondary standards. calibration
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-15 E (EC-Sem-5)

4. These standards are sent to the national standards laboratories on

periodic basis for calibration and conparison against the primary
standards.
5. These are always verified in terms of primary standards.
D. Working Standards
1. These are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instruments
for their accuracy and performance.
2. Manufacturer of precision resistance may use a standard resistor in the
quality control department of his plant to check the values of resistors
that are being manufactured.
3 By this way, manufacturer verifies that his measurement setup performs
within the limits of accuracy that are specified.

Que 1.19.| Discuss the measurement error combination.

Answer
When a quantity is caleulated from measurements made on two
(or more) instruments, it must be assumed that the errors due to
instrument inaccuracy combine in the worst possible way. The resulting
error is then larger than the error in any one instrument.
Sum of Quantities: Where a quantity is determined as the sum oftwo
measurements, the total error is the sum of the absolute errors in each
measurement. It is shown in Fig. 1.19.1.
E =(V, +AV,) + (V2 + AV,)
E=(V+V): (aV, + AV,)

Vt AV

V2t AV2 R2

Fig. 1.19.1. Error in sum of quantities equals sum of errors.

Difference of quantities:
in which a potential difference is
1. Fig. 1.19.2 illustrates a situation
determined as the difference between two measured voltages. Here

again, the errors are additive:

E V-V2
(V,+AV)-(V,+AV)
E=(V-V) t (AV, - AV
1-16E (EC-Sem-5) Electrical Measurements
-

E-

V, AV,R RVAV
Fig. 1.19.2. Error in difference of quantities
equals sum of errors.

Product of quantities:
When a caleulated quantity is the product of two or more quantities, the
percentage error is the sum of the percentage errors in each quantity
Fig. 1.19.3.
P El
= (E t AE) d + A) = El:E al:1AE AE DI
Since AE Al is very small,
P El+ (E Al+ AE)

Percentage error EAl+1 AE 100 %

El

(EA AE100%
EI 100%

7E*
100
Percentage error in P =(Percentage error in /) + (Percentage error in E)

I+AI

E+AE

Fig. 1.19.3.

Quotient of quantities: It can be shown that the percentage error is

the sum of the percentage errors in each quantity. It is shown in
Fig. 1.19.3.
Percentage error in El = (Percentage error in E

+(Percentage error in )
Quantity raised to a power: When a quantity A is raised to a power
B. the percentage error in A" can be shown to be
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-17E (EC-Sem-5)

Percentage error in A8 B (Percentage error in A)

=

For a current I with an accuracy of t 3 %, the error in 12 is 2(+3 %)

= t6%.

PART-2
Review of Indicating and Integrating Instruments PMMC
Instrument, Galvanometer, DC Ammeter,
DC Voltmeter, Series Ohmmeter.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
w.

Que 1.20. | Describe the principle of operation, advantages,

disadvantages and applications of PMMC.

Answer
A. Constructiom:
A PMMOC meter mechanism is the basic mechanism for most analog
1.
D'Arsonval
instruments. This movement is also called
measuring
movement.

2. Main components of a PMMC instrument moving coil, permanent

are

magnet, spring control mechanism, damping system, scale and pointer

etc.

uLLliinluul,
LLLlu,7 scale
Mirror Pointer

Soft iron Moving

cylinder coil

S
Permanent
magnet
Radial field- Balancing weight

Fig. 1.20.1. PMMC

1-18 E (EC-Sem-5) Electrical Measurements
3 Moving coil is wound with many turns of enamelled wire on a real
angular aluminium former which is pivoted on jewelled bearings.
4. Magnetic system consists ofa long U-shaped permanent magnet having
soft iron pole pieces. Fig. 1.20.1 shows the basic structure
of PMMC.
B. Principle of operation:
.Thepermanent magnet applies a strong magnetic field across the space
occupied by the moving coil. Therefore magnetic field of moving coil
interacts with field of the permanent magnet.
2. When no current flows through the coil, resulting magnetic field does
not disturb the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, therefore there
is no deflection in the PMMC.
3. When the current flows through the coil, a
controlling electromagnetic
torque is provided by the interaction of two fields which is responsible
for rotating the coil.
4. A pointer is attached to the coil which is extended out to a scale. The
scale is calibrated to indicate the amount of current through the coil that
is proportional to deflection in the coil.
5. A pair of hair springs is attached (of phosphor bronze material) to each
end of the coil. These springs force the coil to return to its initial
when the applied current is zero.
position
6. The relationship between the electromagnetic torque is
Tp BANI
where, Tp> Developed or deflecting torque, in N-m
B> Flux density in air gap, in Wb/m' (Tesla)
A Effective coil area, in m
N Number of turns of coil
I Current in the movable coil, in amperes (A)
C. Advantages:
1. Low power consumption.
2. Nohysteresis loss.
3. Very effective and reliable eddy eurrent damping.
4 High torque/ weight ratio.
5. Smll operating current.
6. Very accurate and reliable.
7. Very high sensitivity.
8. Uniform scale.
D. Disadvantages
1. It cannot be used for AC measurement.
2 Friction and temperature might introduce some errors.
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-19E (EC-Sem-5)
3. Aging of control springs and the permanent magnet may be responsible
for wrong readings.
4 Its cost is high.
E Applications of PMMC
1. Ammeter: When PMMC is used as an ammeter, except for a very small
current range, the moving coil is connected across a suitable low
resistance shunt, so that only small part of main current flows through
the coil.
2. Voltmeter: When PMMC is used as a voltmeter, the coil is connected in
series with high resistance.
3. Galvanometer: It is used to measure small value of current along with
its direction and strength. It is mainly used on board to deteet and
compare different circuits in a system.
4 Ohmmeter: It is used to measure resistance of the electric circuit by
applying a voltage to a resistance with the help of battery.

Que 1.21. Explain the construction of a PMMC instrument.

Mathematically prove that the scale of such an instrument is linear.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
A Permanent magnet movingcoil (PMMC) nmeters: Refer Q. 1.20,
Page 1-17E, Unit-1.
B. Proof:
When a current I flows through a one-turn coil situated in a magnetic
field, a force F is exerted on each side of the coil,
F BIl newtons
where, B is the magnetie flux density in tesla, lis the current in amperes,
andl is the length of the coil in meters.

2. Since the force acts on each side of the coil, the total force for a coil of N
turns is
F 2BILN newtons
3. The force on each side acts at a radius r, producing a deflecting torque,
Tp 2BINr(N-m)
= BlIN(2r)
 Electrical Measurements
1-20E (EC-Sem-5)

Tp BlIND ..(1.21.1)

where, D is the coil diameter

4. The controlling torque exerted by the spiral springs is directly proportional
to the deformation or "windup" of the springs. Thus, the controlling
torque is proportional to the actual angle of deflection of the pointer
Te = Ke

where, K is a constant.
5. For a given deflection, the controlling and deflecting torques are equal,
KO BlIND
6. Since all quantities except 0 andI are constant for any given instrument,
the deflection angle is
0 CI ..(1.21.2)
where, C is a constant.
to
7. Eq. (1.21.2) shows that the pointer deflection is always proportional
the coil current. Consequently, the scale of the instrument is linear, or
uniformly divided i.e., if1 mA produces a 1 cm movement ofthe pointer
from zero, 2 mA produces a 2 cm movement, and so on.

Que 1.22.| Explain the concept of swamping resistance. What are

the materials generally used for manufacturing these resistances?

AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
1. The moving coil in a PMMC instrument is wound with thin copper wire,
and its resistance can change significantly when its temperaturechanges
2. The heating effect of the coil current may be enough to produce a
resistance change. Any such change in coil resistance will introduce an
error in ammeter current measurements.

3. To minimize the effect of coil resistance variation, a swamping resistance

made of manganin or constantan is connected in series with the shown
in Fig. 1.22.1. Manganin and constantan have resistance temperature
coefficients very close to zero.
Swamping resistance Coil resistance

Rm

R
Fig. 1.221. A swamping resistance connectedin series withthe coil
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-21 E (EC-Sem-5)

4. The ammeter shunt must also be made of manganin or constantan to

avoid shunt resistance variations with temperature.
5. In Fig. 1.22.1, the swamping resistance must be considered part of the
meter resistance R, when calculating shunt resistance values.

Que 1.23.| Explain construction and working in galvanometer. A

PMMC instrument with FSD of 100 HA anda coil resistance of 2 kQ is
to be converted into a voltmeter. Determine the required multiplier
resistance if the voltmeter is to measure 35 V at full scale. Also
calculate the applied voltage when the instrument indicates 0.8, 0.5
and 0.2 of FSD with neat circuit diagram.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 15

OR
Describe the principle of operation and use of galvanometers.

Answer
A Construction:
1. A galvanometer is essentially a PMMC instrument designed to be
sensitive to extremely low current levels.
2. The simplest galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument with the type
of center-zero-scale as shown in Fig. 1.23.1(a).

2 1
1 2
4 lluluI,. 4
(a) Center-zero scale

Suspension
ribbon
Soft iron Mirror
core Coil

Mirror

Lamp
TT

Permanent Scale 0
magnet
(b) Basic deflection system of a galvanometer using a light beam

Fig. 1.23.1.
 1-22 E (EC-Sem-5) Electrical Measurements

3. The deflection system is arranged so that the pointer can deflect

depending on the direction of current through the moving coil.
B. Working:
1. The deflecting torque is proportional to the number of coil turns, the coil
dimensions, and the current flowing in the coil.
2. The most sensitive moving coil galvanometers use taut-ban suspension,
and thecontrolling torque is generated by the twist in the suspension,
ribbon. Eddy current damping may be provided by winding the coil on a
non-magnetic conducting coil former.
6. Sometimes a non-conducting coil former is employed, and the damping
currents are generated solely by the moving coil. In this case, the coil is
shunted by a damping resistor which controls the level of eddy currents
generated by the coil movements.
7. Prequently, a critical damping resistance value is stated, which gives
just sufficient damping to allow the pointer to settle down quickly with
only a very small short-lived oscillation.
C. Numerical:
Given:R = 2 k2, V= 35 V FSD, 1 = 100 uA
To Find:R, and V at 0.8, 0.5 and 0.2 of FSD.

V= I (R, +Rm
V
R,+R
35 V
R R, 100 uA
2 k2 = 348 k2

2. At 0.8 FSD 0 . 8 x 100 uA =80 HA

V= m (R, +R,)= 80 A (348 kQ + 2 k2) =
28 V
3. At 0.5 FSD 0 . 5 x 100 uA = 50 uA
V =50 uA (348 k2 +2 kQ) = 17.5 V
4. At0.2 FSD: I 20 uA
V 20 A (348 k2 +2 k2) =7V
D. Uses of galvanometers:
1 In measurement of small currents.

2 Sometimes used as a null meter or null detector for detecting zero

current or voltage in a circuit rather than to measure the actual level of
voltage or current.
3. In measurement of low level voltages.
Que 1.24. Explain the concept of swamping resistance. What are
the materials generally used for manufacturing these resistances?
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-23 E (EC-Sem-5)

A PMMC instrument with FSD of 0.2 mA and the coil resistance of

10Q is tobe converted into a voltmeter. Determine the required
multiplier resistance if the voltmeter is used to measure 100 V at
full scale. Also determine the applied voltage when the instrument
indicates 0.75, 0.5, 0.25 and 0.1 of FSD. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07

Answer
A Swamping resistance: Refer Q. 1.22, Page 1-20E, Unit-1.
B. Materials used: Refer Q. 1.22, Page 1-20E, Unit-1.
C. Numerical: The procedure is same as Q. 1,.23, Page 1-218, Unit-1.

500V; At 0.25: V 250 V;

(Ans. R=5 MW; At 0.75: V = =

At 0.1: V = 100 V)

Que 1.25. Discuss the construction and working of DC ammeter.

Also write the advantages and disadvantages.

Answer
A Construction:
1. A DC ammeter consists of a PMMC instrument and low resistance
shunt as shown in Fig. 1.25.1.

2. The shunt or very low resistance is connected in parallel with instrument

coil. Here R is the meter resistance and R, is the resistance of shunt.
B. Working:
1. Since the coil winding of a basic PMMC movement is small and light
therefore it can carry a very small current.

Im

Meter
Input
DC current Ra

Fig. 1.25.1
2. When large current is required to be measured then a resistance is
connected in parallel with the meter to bypass additional current. This
resistance is called a shunt R,j
3. Out of the total input current, I current equal to meter current I passes
flows
through the meter and the balance shunt current =
through shunt resistance as per Kirchhoff's current law (KCL).
h I -1,m
4. Since the shunt resistance R, is in parallel with the meter movement,
the voltage drop across the shunt and meter movement must be same.
1-24 E (EC-Sem-5) Electrical Measurements

V
shunt movement

sh I-1
or R
5.
ah(/I)-1
Therefore ammeter range could be varied by varying the shunt resistance

RhL (1/1,)-1 Umes the meter resistance Rm

C. Advantages:
1. Scale is uniformly divided.
2. Very low power consumption.
3. Torque/weight ratio is high so giving high accuracy.
4. Errors due to stray magnetic field are small.
D. Disadvantages:
1. They can be used for DC only. If connected to AC, readings are zero due
to finite inertia of pointer.
2. These instruments are costly.

Que 1.26. |Explain the construction and working of DC voltmeter

OR
Explain the working procedure of DC ammeter and voltmeter.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 05

Answer
A. DC ammeter: Refer Q. 1.25, Page 1-23E, Unit-1.
B. DC voltmeter:
a. Construction:
1. A DC voltmeter is made up of a PMMC instrument and a series multiplier
resistor as shown in Fig. 1.26.1.
2. The D'Arsonval movement can be converted into a DC voltmeter
when a low current flowing through coil is multiplied with its internal
resistance. But the voltage measured is of very low amplitude.
b. Working
1. To measure high voltages, a resistor should be connected in series with
the meter that will drop the excess voltage across it thus the meter
movement does not cross its safe ratings.
2. This series resistor is called as multiplier resistor because it
multiplies
the working ranges of the meter movement.
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-25 E EC-Sem-5)

3. The value of multiplier, required to extend the voltage range can be

found out by applying Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) across the loop.

Vin R,+R,)
or
R,=-R m

where, R Multiplier resistance

=

Vin= Full range voltage ofthe instrument

Deflection eurrent
ofthe movement (psD
R= Internal resistance ofthe movement
R
W

DC input Voltmeter
Vin

Fig.1.26.1. BasicDC voltmeter circuit.

Que 1.27.How would you convert ammeter into voltmeter?

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answeer
1. Converting an ammeter to a voltmeter involves increasing the
resistance of the ammeter. This is done by adding a high resistance in
series with the ammeter.
2. Let the range ofthe ammeter be 0-1, ampere and we convert it to a
voltmeter of range 0-V, volt.
3. To calculate the series resistance R, we first determine the ammeter
resistance using the circuit of Fig. 1.27.1(a).
'ss
Converted
voltmeter W-
Bn R
W-
V, W-

(a) 6)
Fig. 1.27.1. (a) Circuit for determination of ammeter resistance,
(b) Circuit for using the ammeter as voltmeter.
1-26 E (EC-Sem-5) Electrical Measurements

4. Let R,, be the internal resistance of the ammeter, then the current
lowing through the circuit is i = EXR + R,), where E is the input

voltage.
5. The voltage drop across R is V, and the current is i, = V,/R. Since

i=i, the ammeter resistance R is obtained as,

(E-V,)R
R
V,
6. To calculate R, we note that the voltage drop across the ammeter,
showing full seale reading I is V = I x R To make ammeter
full-scale to read full-scale voltage Vo the remaining voltage
V = V- V should drop across R, and from this consideration we
calculate series resistance as,

RR
R mVV
Que 1.28. Describe the working of series ohmmeter.

Answer
Series ohmmeter:
1. The resistance reading is indicated by meter movement. A battery is
connected in the cireuit to produce required current for meter movement.

Fig. 1.28.1. Series type ohmmeter.

where, R= Internal resistance of D'Arsonval movement
R Zero adjust resistor
2 Resistance marking on the meter display is inversely proportional to
current marking because
R1/I
When R, =0 (short circuit), the resistance R, is adjusted to get full-scale
current through the movement. Thus at I =Irsp» the pointer will be
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 1-27E (EC-Sem-5)

deflected to its maximum position. Therefore, at the full scale deflection

current pSD) is marked for 0 ohms.
ii. When R, = o (open circuit), the pointer will not deflect from its position
and will read zero in this condition. Therefore, the zero eurrent reading
is marked for oo ohms.
3. Resistance is marked at logarithmic pattern on the scale, ie., expanded
at low end and compressed at high end.
4. Let R, be the desired resistance for the half scale deflection.
(.e.,I =Ips/2)
R = Internal resistance of the circuit looking from
terminals A and B.

R, RRR
R+
5. Battery current is required to produce half scale deflection.

E
2R
6. Total current 1, to produce full scale deflection is

psD=2/
E

7.
7. By applying KCL in the circuit

I =l+lpsSD
FsD
8. Using Kirchhoff's voltage law
RspR
1,- psD
R =
IpsD R R
E-1psp R,
2m R-sp R
R R, +Rm E

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your
SESSIONALS as well a s
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 3-21 E (EC-Sem-5)

Ea lRa
..-.
E=1,R4

=(R+7) B=1,R = IJoC

(6)
Fig. 3.13.1
2. Let L, = Self-inductance to be measured,
R = Resistance of self-inductor,
series with
r= Resistance connected in
self-inductor,
r, Rg Rg R,= Known non-inductive resistances,
and C Fixed standard capacitor.
3. At balance, 1 and I, =1,+1
4. Now, 1,R=I,x
joC
..(3.13.1)
=1 jioCR
5. Writing the other balance equations,
+R+ joL,) =1,R, +1y ..3.13.2)

and -1R
joC)
6. Substituting the value of1, from eq. (3.13.1) in eq. (3.13.2), we have
1+R +jol,)=1,R,+IjoCR
1r+R+ joL -joCRr)= 1,R2 ..3.13.3)
or

and joCRr+ JOC)

=,-IjioCR,R,
..(3.13.4)
or 1 joCRr+joCR,R, +R,)= 1,R,
From eq. (3.13.3) and (3.13.4), we obtain
7.

2 a , joCR,R+ j»CRgRa|
+R +jol,-joCRr)=I, R
8. Equating the real and the imaginary parts,
3-22 E (EC-Sem-5) Measuring Methods and AC Bridges

RRA
and
L=CrR,
R +R)+RR
Que 3.14. Write the mathematical expression for inductor -factor
and capacitor D-factor. Explain the working of induetance

comparison bridge. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10|

Answer
Q-factor of an inductor:
1 The quality factor, Q-factor, ofthe inductor is the ratio ofthe inductive
reactance and resistance at the operating frequency.

where, L, and R, refer to the components of an RL series equivalent

circuit.
2. Ideally, oL, should be very much larger then R,, so that a very large
Q-factor is obtained.
3. When the parallel equivalent circuit is employed
R

D-factor of a capacitor:
1. The dissipation factor D defines the quality of the capacitor. D is
simply
the ratio of the component reactance (at a given frequency) to the
resistance measurable at its terminals.
2. Using the parallel equivalent circuit,
1
D
R oCR,
3. Ideally, R, should be very much large then 1/(oC,), giving a very small
dissipation factor.
4. When a series equivalent circuit is used, the equation for dissipation
factor can be shown to be

D-oCR
Inductance comparison bridge:
1. The circuit of the inductance comparison bridge is shown in
Fig. 3.14.1.
2 The unknown inductance, represented by its (series equivalent circuit)
L, and R, is measured in terms of a precise standard value of inductor.
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 3-23 E (EC-Sem-5)

3. Lis the standard inductor, R, is a variable standard resistorto balance

R, Rg andR, Balance of the bridge is achieved by alternately adjusting
R, and either R, or R

Z1
R
-D-
ww

Fig.3.15.1. Inductance comparison bridge.

4. At balance, we have,

R+joL= R+ jol,
R R
..(3.14.1)
RRR,"
5. Equating the real and imaginary components in eq. (3.14.1)

Rand R n d -

R= and L=
R R

Que 3.15. Define Owen's Bridge with phasor diagram. Give its
advantages and disadvantages also.

Answer
This bridge may be used for measurement of an inductance in terms of
1.
capacitance.
L = Unknown self-inductance of resistance R,
2. Let,
R Variable non-inductive resistance,
R = Fixed non-inductive resistance,
C,= Variable standard capacitor,
and C= Fixed standard capacitor.
3-24 E (EC-Sem-5) Measuring Methods and AC Bridges

-E Eg

R, L
QO000-
(D)

E E

(a)
2
aC2 E=E2
1oL --

E=1,Rg
(6) oC

Fig.3.15.1.
3. At balance,

4 Equating real and imaginary parts, we obtain:

L= R, R,C, and
R=R3 Ca
Advantages:
1. Owen's Bridge can be used over a wide range of measurement of
inductance.
2. The balance equation are simple and do not contain any frequency
component.
Disadvantages
Owen's bridge requires a variable capacitor which is expensive.
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 3-25 E (EC-Sem-5)

Que 3.16. How dielectrie loss and unknown capacitance are

measured by Schering bridge ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks10

Answer
A Measurement of Capacitance:
1. lt is one of the most widely used AC bridges for the measurement of
unknown capacitors, dielectric loss and power factor.
2. It is also useful for measuring insulating properties, i.e., phase angles
very nearly 90°.
3. Fig. 3.16.1 shows basic circuit arrangement

ler-

E Detector Ic
G1

oC oC3
Fig. 3.16.1. Schering bridge
4. One of the ratio arms consists of a resistance in parallel with a capacitor
and standard arm consist only a capacitor.
5. The standard capacitor is a high quality mica capacitor or an air capacitor
for insulation measurement.
6. The general bridge balance equation is,
Z,2, = 2,23

Y jo
Z Rg,Z=Rz, Z o Ca

Z= R, * 1
joC,
3-26 E (EC-Sem-5) Measuring Methods and AC Bridges

Substituting,

R R, OC, R joc,
R R RoC
oC
Separating real and imaginary terms,

R.: RC ..(3.16.1)
C
1 R
oC, oR,C
...3.16.2)
R
The eq. (3.16.2) gives the value of unknown capacitance C, in terms of
standard capacitor Cg, R, and R
B. Measurement of dielectric loss:
For a series combination of R, and C, the angle between the voltage
across the series combination and voltage across the capacitor C, is
called loss angle (8).

Now, tan = IR

C,)
R,C,
tan = o G ,

oR,C
Que 3.17.Explain capacitance and inductance bridges.
OR
How the capacitance value is measured with the help of De-Sauty's
bridge? This bridge is used for which type of capacitor.
OR
The standard capacitance value in Fig. 3.17.1 is C, = 0.1 F, and
RR, can be set to any ratio between 100: 1 and 1:100. Caleulate
the range of measurements of unknown capacitance C.
 Measurements 3-27E (EC-Sem-5)
Electronic Instrumentation and

Answer
Capacitance bridge
This bridge is simplest method of comparing two capacitances.
1

V-V-l,R=
V V

1/oC

1,/oCa
(a) Circuit diagram (6) Phasor diagram
Fig. 3.17.1.
..(3.17.1)
2 At balance

...(3.17.2)
and

have
Dividing eq. (3.19.1) by eq. (3.19.2),
we
3.

R
-jloC-iloC,
After solving, we get

R
C C2
low dielectric losses such as air
4 This bridge is used for the capacitor with
capacitor.
Numerical:

C-CR
100: 1:
For RR, =

10
C =0.1 uFx
1
=10 uF
For R/R, =1: 100:
C = 0.1 uFx =0.001 uF
100
Unit-3.
Inductance bridge : Refer Q. 3.11, Page 3-17E,