Measurement and Instrumentation

Basic Concepts of
Measurement Methods
What Is Measurements?
Measurement:
an estimation of a physical (chemical or biological)
variable by a measurement device.

Environment parameter (P, T, rh etc.)

Instrument Data

operator
V C

Measurement
Method

Physical
parameter
 General Measurement System
Optional state

Measured System
stimulus Sensor or Signal output
variable Output
Transducer Conditioning
(Input signal State
State State
or
measurand)

-amplifier -meter
-filter -oscilloscope
-recorder

Sensor or transducer is an input device convert the quantity under

measurement into a detectable signal form: electrical.

Signal conditioning modifies the transducer signal into a desired

form e.g. amplification, noise reduction.
Output State provides an indication of the value of the measurement
(readout device or recording)
Some Useful Definitions

Transducer

a device which converts a signal from one physical form to
a corresponding signal having a different physical form.
(energy converter)
Sensor (input transducer)

a device converts the physical or non-physical signal which
is to be measured into an electrical signal which can be
processed or transmitted electronically. (physical
signal/electrical signal)
Actuator (output transducer)

a device converts the modified electrical signal into a non-
electrical signal. (electrical signal/physical signal)
Signal domains with examples

Mechanical Length, area, volume, all time derivatives such as

velocity/acceleration, mass flow, force , torque, pressure,
acoustic wavelength and intensity
Thermal Temperature, (specific) heat, entropy, heat flow, state of
matter

Electrical Voltage, current,charge, resistance, inductance, capacitance,

dielectric constant, polarization, electric field, frequency, dipole
moment
Magnetic Field intensity, flux density, magnetic moment, permeability

Radiant Intensify, phase, wavelength, polarization, reflectance,

transmittance, refractive index

Chemical Composition, concentration, reaction rate, pH,

oxidation/reduction potential
 Applications of Measurement System

Monitoring of processes and operations

Control of processes and operations
Experimental analysis

Reference Error Room

value, Td signal Temperatrue, Ta
Heater Room
Td - Ta
Ta
Temp.
sensor

A simple closed-loop control system

Dummy driver
Classification: Active and Passive

Passive or Self-generating Instrument:

an instrument whose output energy is supplied entirely or
almost entirely by its input signal

Active or Modulating Instrument:

an instrument has an auxiliary of power which supplies a
major part of the output power while the input signal supplies only
an insignificant portion.

External
System System power

input Measurement output input Measurement output

System System

Self-generating Modulating
Classification: Null and Deflection Methods

Deflection-type
The measured quantity produced
some physical effects that engenders a similar
but opposing effect in some part of the
instrument. The opposing effect increases
until a balance is achieved, at which point the
“deflection” is measured.
A spring balance

Null-type Method:
a null-type device attempts to maintain
deflection at zero by suitable application of a
known effect opposing the generated by the
measured quantity. (a null detector and a
means of restoring balancing are necessary).

An equal arm balance

 Analog and Digital Instruments
Analog Instrument:
An analog instrument gives an output that varies
continuously as the quantity being measured changes.
The output can have an infinite number of values within the
input range.
Digital Instruments:
The digital instruments has an output that varies in
discrete steps and so can only have a finite number of values.

Example of an analog and digital instrument

Classification: Null and Deflection Methods
Standard
voltage source

Vx
VS

c d
V

Vx + -

Galvano-
G HW: Describe the mechanism
Im meter

a b

Measuring unknown voltage using a

Vx Unknown
voltmeter voltage

Potentiometer voltage
measurement
Experimental Variables
Independent variable

a variable that can be changed independently of other variables.

Dependent variable

a variable that is affected by one or more other variables.

Controlled variable

a variable that can be held at constant value during the
measurement process.

Extraneous variable

a variable that are not or can not be controlled during
measurement but can affected the value of the measured
variable.
Example of Experimental Variables

Measured variable: Boiling point (Dependent variable)

Extraneous variable: Atmospheric pressure
Extraneous Variables
Interference

An undesirable deterministic trends on the measured value
because of extraneous variables.
Noise

a random variation of the value of the measured signal as a
consequence of the variation of the extraneous variables.

Interference and Noise

Electronic Instruments

Disadvantages of PMMC voltmeter

Low input impedance: Loading
effect
Insufficient sensitivity to detect low
level signal
Electronic voltmeters
Analog instrument
Digital instrument
 Rm

Voltmeter

R1

EB

Rs Basic PMMC

Ammeter Ohmmeter
D Rm

AC voltmeter
 Electronic
voltmeter

RS
Ammeter

R1

Electronic Electronic
R2 voltmeter EB R1 voltmeter

Basic Electronic
voltmeter
Voltmeter Ohmmeter
D

Electronic
voltmeter

AC voltmeter
Loading Effect

R1 5V 100kΩ 6.7 V
100kΩ
10 V 10 V
R2 5V 100kΩ 3.3 V V 100kΩ
100kΩ

100 // 100
Vmeas = 10 V = 3.3 V
100 + 100 // 100

Circuit before measurement Circuit under measurement

100kΩ 6V 100kΩ 5.2 V

10 V 10 V
100kΩ 4.8 V V
100kΩ 4V V 200kΩ 1000kΩ

200 // 100 1000 // 100

Vmeas = 10 V = 4.0 V Vmeas = 10 V = 4.8 V
100 + 200 // 100 100 + 1000 // 100
 Loading Effect
Example Find the voltage reading and % error of each reading obtained with a voltmeter on (i) 5 V
range, (ii) 10 V range and (iii) 30 V range, if the instrument has a 20 kΩ/V sensitivity, an accuracy
1% of full scale deflection and the meter is connected across Rb

SOLUTION The voltage drop across Rb with output to the voltmeter connection

HW
Ra
45kΩ
50 V
Rb V Rm
5kΩ
Loading Effect

Range Vb . Loading Meter Total % error

(V) (V) error (V) error (V) error (V)
5 4.78 -0.22 ± 0.05 ± 0.27 ± 5.36
10 4.88 -0.12 ± 0.1 ± 0.22 ± 4.40
30 4.95 -0.05 ± 0.3 ± 0.35 ± 6.10
Operational Amplifier Voltmeter

Op-Amp Amplifier Voltmeter

R4
Non-inverting
amplifier
meter
circuit
Vout = (1 + )E
R3
+VCC
The voltage gain
+
R4
E Av = (1 + )
- I4 R4 Vout Rs+Rm R3
-VEE

IB
Selection of R3 and R4
I3
R3
E Vout − E
R3 = and R4 =
I3 I3

The non-inverting amplifier gives a very high input impedance and very low output
impedance. Therefore, the loading effect can be neglected. Furthermore, it can
provide gain with enabling to measure low level input voltage.
 Operational Amplifier Voltmeter

Example Design an op-amp Voltmeter circuit which can measure a maximum input of
20 mV. The op-amp input current is 0.2 µA, and the meter circuit has Im = 100 µA FSD
and Rm = 10 kΩ. Determine suitable resistance values for R3 and R4

SOLUTION To neglect the effect of IB, the condition of I4 >> IB must be satisfied.
The rule of thumb suggested I4 should be at least 100 times greater
than IB
Non-inverting meter Select I4 = 1000 x IB = 1000 x 0.2 µA = 0.2 mA
amplifier circuit

At full scale: Im = 100 µA

+VCC

E
- I4 R4 Vout Rs+Rm
-VEE

IB
I3
R3
Operational Amplifier Voltmeter

Op-Amp Amplifier Voltmeter: voltage to current converter

+VCC Since I3 >> IB, therefore Im= I3
+ E
Meter current I m = I3 =
EB
-
R3
Im
Rs+Rm
-VEE Rm
Meter voltage Vm = E
R3
IB
if Rm > R3, voltage E is amplified by the ratio of Rm/R3
I3
VR3 R3
Current Measurement with Electronic Voltmeter
Electronic
voltmeter
+VC
C

-
Rs+Rm
-VEE
E

R3

+ + RS - -
I
Ammeter
terminals

An electronic voltmeter can be used for current measurement by measuring the voltage
drop across a shunt (Rs). The instrument scale is calibrated to indicate current.
 Electronic Ohmmeter: Series Connection

standard range
resistor switch

llu
al r f
1MΩ

s c ete
M
e
100kΩ
R1
R1 1kΩ A
100Ω Rx = 0 Rx = ∞
EB +
10Ω Electronic
1.5V Rx E voltmeter
(1.5 V range)
-
Ohmmeter scale for electronic instrument
B

Series Ohmmeter for electronic instrument

At Rx = ∞ or open circuit, the voltmeter indicate full scale defection (E = 1.5 V) and Rx =
0 or shorted circuit, since E = 0, no defection is observed. At other values of resistance,
the battery voltage EB is potentially divided across R1 and Rx, given by
Suppose that R1 is set to 1 kΩ
Rx 1 kΩ
E = EB E = 1.5 V × = 0.75 V (50% defection)
R1 + Rx 1 kΩ + 1 kΩ
Thus if Rx = R1, half scale will be indicated
 Electronic Ohmmeter: Series Connection

Example For the electronic ohmmeter in the Figure, determine the resistance scale
marking at 1/3 and 2/3 of full scale

Rx
standard range SOLUTION From E = EB
resistor switch R1 + Rx
1MΩ
R1
100kΩ Rearrange, give us Rx =
EB −1
R1 1kΩ A E
100Ω
EB +
1.5V
10Ω
Rx E
Electronic
voltmeter At 1/3 FSD; E = EB/3
(1.5 V range)
-
R1 R
Rx = = 1
B
EB × 3
−1 2
ll

EB
u
al r f
s c ete

At 2/3 FSD; E = 2EB/3

M
e

R1/2 R1 2R1
R1
Rx = ∞ Rx = = 2 R1
Rx = 0 EB × 3
−1
2 EB
 Electronic Ohmmeter: Parallel Connection

+ At Rx = ∞ or open circuit,
R1 R2
4kΩ E = EB
R1 + R2
A
6V
1.33 kΩ
+
= 6 V× = 1.5 V
R2
Rx E
Electronic
voltmeter
4 kΩ + 1.33 kΩ
1.33kΩ (1.5 V range)
-
Therefore, this circuit give FSD, when Rx = ∞
-
B
When, Rx = 0 Ω, E = 0 V, therefore, the meter
Shunt Ohmmeter for electronic instrument gives no defection.

R2 || Rx
At any value of Rx E = EB
R1 + R2 || Rx

So, the meter indicates half-scale when Rx = R1|| R2

AC Electronic Voltmeter

Principle
Most ac measurements are made with ac-to-dc converter, which
produce a dc current/voltage proportional to the ac input being measured

Vin ac to dc converter dc meter

Classification:
Average responding
periodic signal only
Peak responding
RMS responding (True rms meter) any signal
AC Electronic Voltmeter
The scale on ac voltmeters are ordinarily calibrated in rms volts

Average responding meter

Form factor is the ratio of the rms value to the average value of the wave form

Vrms
Vin ac to dc converter dc meter Form Factor =
Vaverage

It should be noted that the rms value is calculated from Vin, while the average value is
calculated from the output of ac-dc converter.
Peak responding meter
Form factor is the ratio of the peak value to the rms value of the wave form

V peak
Crest Factor =
Vrms
Average-Responding Meter
In this type of instrument, the ac signal is rectified and then fed to a dc millimeter.
In the meter instrument, the rectified current is averaged either by a filter or by the ballistic
characteristics of the meter to produce a steady deflection of the meter pointer.
+VD- +VD- output
+ + waveform

- + - +
D1 D1
E Input E Input
waveform
output Vm waveform Vm
waveform
Vout Vout
- -

Conventional half-wave rectifier precision rectifier

For the positive cycle, Vout = E
For the positive cycle, Vout = Vm = E
Vm = E − VD
where VD = cut-in voltage ~0.6-0.7 for Si For the negative cycle, Vout = 0
For the negative cycle, Vout = E
Therefore, the voltage drop in the forward
Vm = 0 bias can be compensated by this
Since Diode D1 is revered bias, no configuration
current flow through meter
Average-Responding Meter

V2
Vin

V1

V2
Vin

V1
 Average-Responding Voltmeter

Voltage to current converter

precision
rectifier
precision
rectifier
+VCC
C1 D1 D3
+VCC
+ + VF -
C1
Im Rs+Rm
R1 +
E - D1
Rs+Rm R1
meter
E current
-VEE -
meter
current -VEE
D2 D4

R3
R3

Half-wave rectifier Full-wave rectifier

Ep Ep
Ip = Meter peak current Ip =
Meter peak current R3
R3
2
Average meter current I = 1 I = 0.318I Average meter current I av = I p = 0.637I p
av
π
p p π
 Average-Responding Voltmeter
Example The half-wave rectifier electronic voltmeter circuit uses a meter with a FSD
current of 1 mA. The meter a coil resistance is 1.2 kΩ. Calculate the value of R3 that will
give meter full-scale pointer deflection when the ac input voltage is 100 mV (rms). Also
determine the meter deflection when the input is 50 mV.
SOLUTION at FSD, the average meter current is 1 mA

precision
rectifier

+VCC
C1
+ + VF -
R1
E - D1
Rs+Rm
-VEE
meter
current

R3
Peak-Responding Voltmeter
The primary difference between the peak-responding voltmeter and the average-
responding voltmeter is the use of a storage capacitor with the rectifying diode.

dc
amplifier

VD~0.7V

+
Vin C R
Vin C VC R
- the input impedance
Discharge cycle of the dc amp
Charge cycle

In the first positive cycle: VC tracks Vin with the difference of VD, until Vin reaches
its peak value. After this point, diode is reversed bias and the circuit keeps VC at
Vp – VD. The effect of discharging through R will be minimized if its value is large
enough to yield that RC >> T.
Peak-Responding Voltmeter

VC tracks Vin

VC

Vin
RMS-Responding Voltmeter
Suitable for: low duty-cycle pulse trains
voltages of undetermined waveform
T
1 2
T ∫0
RMS value definition: Mathematic Vrms = v (t )dt

Vin Vout
x
2
∫
RMS value definition: Physical
rms voltage is equivalent to a dc voltage which generates the same amount
of heat power in a resistive load that the ac voltage does.
Millivoltmeter

TC output (mV)
Temp. rise ∝ Vrms Non-linear
Thermocouple Difficult to calibrate scale

I
heating wire
Temp(oC)
RMS-Responding Voltmeter
Null-balance technique: non-linear cancellation

Compare the heating power generated by input voltage to the heating

power generated the dc amplifier
Measuring thermocouple

ac input ac dc
voltage Amplifier Amplifier
-
- +
Balancing Feedback
thermocouple current

Heater +
Vin A Vout
& TC
-

Heater
& TC
 Negative Feedback

VT1
+ Ve
Vin Heater A Vout
& TC
-

VT2 Heater
& TC

Vout = Ve = A (VT 1 − VT 2 )

Let, VT1 = k Vin and VT2 = k Vout where k is proportional constant of the heater and TC in
the system. Note that k may depend on the level of the input signal

Vout = A ( kVin − kVout )

Vout Ak
= If A is large Vout ≈ Vin
Vin 1 + Ak
If the amplifier gain is very large, Vout is equal to Vin, this means that the dc voltage
output is therefore equal to the effective, or rms value of the input voltage
 Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Hand-held DMM

Portable Analog
Multimeter

Bench-top DMM
 Digital Voltmeter (DVM)

DVM is essentially an Analog to digital converter (A/D) with a

digital display

Digital voltmeter
Digital display
Attenuator Analog to Digital
Amplifier Converter

Digital MultiMeter = electronic Volt Ohm Millimeter with

(DMM) digital display
 Comparison of Digital and Analog Meter

Digital meter Analog meter

Leaves no doubt about the measured quantity. Wrong scale might be used or might be
read incorrectly.
Superior resolution and accuracy. Inferior resolution and accuracy.
(±0.5% or better) (±3% in common)
Indicates a negative quantity when the Pointer attempts to deflect to the left
terminal polarity is reversed when the polarity is reversed
No usually damaged by rough treatment Can be damaged when dropped from
bench level
 Analog to Digital Conversion
A/D converts an analog signal into the digital code which is
proportional to the magnitude of the coming signal.

Vin ≈ k ×Digital output

Where k is step size or resolution
Ex. Signal from 800-1500 mV may be converted to 8-bit binary codes starting from
010100002 (8010) to 100101102 (15010). In this case, the step size k is equal to
10 mV.

Quantization error or Conversion error of a A/D

step size 1
Quantization error = × 100 = N × 100%
full scale 2 −1
Where N is the number of bit
 Analog to Digital Conversion
Conversion time, Tc time requires to convert an analog signal to the
corresponding digital code.

111

110
Digital output

101
step size = 1 V
100
Quantization error = 1/7 × 100 =14.3%
011

010 A/D will give 010 digital code. Ex. An analog inputs 1.5-2.5 V will be
represented by digital output 010
1.5 2.5
001

000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Full scale)
Analog input (V)
An example of 3 bit ADC
 Ramp-type Digital Voltmeter
(also called single slope)
Operation principle: The measurement of the time it takes for a linear ramp voltage to
rise from O V to the level of the input voltage, or to decrease from the
level of the input voltage to zero. This time interval is measured with
an electronic time-interval counter.
Start measurement
Ramp signal Coincindence Vramp(t) = Vo – m t
Vin
Where m is the ramp rate

Vramp(t1) = Vin = Vo –m t1
Time
Vramp(t2) = 0 = Vo – m t2
∆t
Gating ∆t = t2- t1 = Vin/m
time interval
If the period of the clock is T, then during the
time interval ∆t1, the number of pulses is

Clock pulses n pulse ∆t ≈ nT or Vin ≈ nmT

to counter
•Accuracy depends on both the ramp rate and
clock period.
Voltage-to-time conversion using gated clock pulses.
 V+>V-; Vo = V(1) Logic high
Comparator V+<V-; Vo = V(0) Logic low
Vo
V(1)
Vin +
Vo
Vref
V(0) Vin
Vref

Vo
V(1)
Vref +
Vo
Vin
V(0)
Vin
Vref
 Ramp-type Digital Voltmeter

Voltage-to-time conversion
Time measurement unit

input
Ranging vin comparator Digital
DC input
voltage
and - display
Attenuator
+ start
count
clk
Oscillator Gate Counter

ground
vramp stop
Ramp comparator
- count
Generator
0V +
start ramp
Sample
reset
Rate
MV

Block diagram of a ramp-type digital voltmeter.

 Staircase Ramp Digital Voltmeter
(also called digital ramp) Compare the input voltage to the internally generated stair
case ramp.
V in + •The most simple A/D
Comp.
-
•Slow conversion and conversion time
depends on the magnitude of input signal.
V AX
TC,max = (2N − 1) × Clock period
D/A

Digital output
Vin

D/A output
VAX
Clock Counter

clock period
Control circuit
time
Block diagram
Successive Approximation Digital Voltmeter
Ex. To determine a number between 0 – 511 (9 bit binary),
given, the number to be determined is 301

No. Estimate Results

1 256 1 0000 0000 Vin > VAX
2 256+128 = 384 1 1000 0000 <
3 256+64 = 320 1 0100 0000 <
4 256+32 = 288 1 0010 0000 >
5 288+16 = 304 1 0011 0000 <
6 288+8 = 296 1 0010 1000 >
7 296+4 = 300 1 0010 1100 >
8 300+2 = 302 1 0010 1110 <
9 300+1 = 301 1 0010 1101 Finished
 Successive Approximation Digital Voltmeter
Compare the input voltage to the internally generated voltage
•The most common A/D for general
V in +
applications
Comp.
- •Conversion time is fixed (not depend on the
V AX signal magnitude) and relatively fast
TC = N × Clock period
D/A
where N is the number of bits
Digital output Full
scale

Succesive Vin
3 Full
Clock Approximation
D/A output 4 scale
Register
1 Full
2 scale VAX

Control circuit 1 Full

4 scale
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Block diagram Clock period

 Dual-slope Digital Voltmeter
C C

V in R V in R
- -
V out V out
+ +
V ref V ref

Phase 1: charging C with the unknown input for Phase 2: discharging C with the reference voltage
a given time. until the output voltage goes to zero.
Assume Vc(0) = 0
Vin T Vref Tx
Vout1 = − Vout = + Vout1
RC RC
where T is the charging time find Tx at which Vout becomes zero
Charge Discharge
time
Vin T
Tx =
Vref

Vout
Phase 1 Phase 2
 Dual-slope Digital Voltmeter
Conversion time
Charge Discharge
0
Sm
time
all
inp
ut
v olt
La

ag
e •Accuracy does not depend on R C and Clock
rg
e

(high accuracy)
in
pu
tv

•Relatively slow
ol
ta

•Capable to reject noise

ge

Vout TC = Tconst + T variable

C
Zero
crossing Display
Vin R detector
- Vout
+ -
count
Vref + Counter
reset

Clock
generator

Control logic
Ex A dual slope A/D has R= 100 kΩ and C = 0.01 µF . The reference voltage is 10 volts
and the fixed integration time is 10 ms. Find the conversion time for a 6.8 volt input.

Vin T (6.8 V)(10 ms)

Tx = = = 6.8 ms
Vref (10 V)

The total conversion time is then 10 ms + 6.8 ms = 16.8 ms Ans

Ex Find the successive approximation A/D output for a 4-bit converter to a 3.217 volt
input if the reference is 5 volts.

(1) Set D3 = 1 VAX = 5/2 = 2.5 Volts

Vin > VAX leave D3 = 1
(2) Set D2 = 1 VAX = 5/2 + 5/4 = 3.75 Volts
Vin < VAX reset D2 = 0
(3) Set D1 = 1 VAX = 5/2 +5/8= 3.125 Volts
Vin > VAX leave D1 = 1
(4) Set D0 = 1 VAX = 5/2+5/8+5/16 = 3.4375 Volts
Vin < VAX reset D0 = 0
By this procedure, we find the output is a binary word of 10102 Ans
 Typical specification of DMM
General
Maximum voltage between
:600 V
terminals
Fuse protection :200mA/250V
Power :9V battery
Display :LCD 31/2 digits, updates 2-3/ sec.
Input impedance :10 MΩ
Frequency range :40-400 Hz
Measuring method Dual-slope integration
Over range indication Only figure “1” on the display
Polarity indication “-” displayed for negative polarity
Accuracy of DMM
Indicate as ± (% of reading + No. of digits)
Ex. ± (0.5% of rdg + 1 digits) sometimes simplify as ± (0.5 + 1)
Ex. For an accuracy of ± (0.5 + 1) , calculate the maximum error of in the 1.800 V reading
error = ± (0.5% of 1.800 + 0.001 V)
= ± (0.009 + 0.001 V) = ± 0.01 V or ± 0.56% of reading
Ex A 20 V dc voltage is measured by analog and digital multimeters. The analog instrument
is on its 25 V range , and its specified accuracy is ± 2%. The digital meter has 3 ½ digit
display and an accuracy of ±(0.6+1). Determine the measurement accuracy in each case.

Analog instrument:
Voltage error = ± 2% of 25 V ½ digit
= ± 0.5 V
error = ± 0.5 V × 100%
20 V
= ± 2.5%
Digital instrument:
For 20 V displayed on a 3 ½ digit display 3½ digit display
1 Digit = 0.1 V
Voltage error = ± (0.6% of reading + 1 Digit)
= ± (1.2 V + 0.1 V)
= ± 0.22 V
error = ± 0.22 V × 100%
20 V
= ± 1.1%