Electrical & Electronics

Measurement
 Chapter1: Introduction to Measurement

 What is Measurement?
 Process of comparing unknown magnitude of a parameter / quantity
with its predefined standard.
 Methods of Measurement
1. Direct Comparison with the Standard
Here, the quantity is directly compared with the primary or
secondary standard.

Example, to measure the length of the bar, it is compared with

the measuring tape or scale that acts as the secondary standard.

2. Indirect Method of Measurement

Some quantities cannot be measured directly by using some
instrument.

Example: The strain in the bar due to applied force cannot be

measured directly.
 Classification of Instruments

Intstrument

Absolute Intstrument Secondary Intstrument

Based on pointer Based on types Based their based on method

deflection of signals functions of comparison

Deflection Analog Indicating Direct

type Instrument Measuring
Recording Instrument
Digital
Null type Instrument Integrating Comparison
Instrument
 Different types of Instrument
 Absolute Instrument
 Measured a quantity in terms of physical constants of the instrument.
 Example- D’Arsonval Galvanometer

 Secondary Instrument
 These instruments are calibrated with an absolute instrument or
another secondary instrument which is already calibrated by an
absolute instrument.
 Example- voltmeter, thermometer.

 Deflection type Instrument

 Deflection of the instrument provides the basis of measuring the
quantity under measurement.
 Example- PMMC ammeter/ voltmeter
 Different types of Instrument
 Null type Instrument
 Here, a zero or null indication leads to determination of the quantity
under measurement.
 Example- Potentiometer

 Analog Instrument
 It measures a quantity by converting it in analog signal.

 Digital Instrument
 It measures a quantity by converting it in digital signal.

 Indicating instrument
 These instruments indicate the magnitude of a quantity being measured.
They have a dial and a pointer for this purpose. Example- ordinary
ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter.
 Different types of Instrument
 Recording Instrument
 It gives the continuous record of the quantity to be measured over a
specified period of time.
 Example- recording voltmeter
 Integrating Instrument
 It totalises the quantity over a specified period of time.
 Example: Energy meter
 Direct Measuring Instrument
 It converts the quantity to be measured directly into energy that
actuates the instrument to measure or display or record the quantity.
 Example- Ammeter, voltmeter, energy meter.
 Comparison instrument
 These instruments measure the unknown quantity by comparison with a
standard.
 Example- Bridges.
 Characteristics of Measuring Instrument
 True value
 The actual value of a quantity that can only be approached but never
evaluated .
 Accuracy
 It is defined as closeness with which an instrument reading approaches
the true or accepted value of the variable (quantity).
 Drift
 It refers the ability of an instrument to retain its calibration with time.
 Repeatability
 Repeatability is the ability of an instrument to measure the same
quantity to the same value repeatedly over a short period of time with
the same measurement conditions, same instrument, same observer and
same location.
 Characteristics of Measuring Instrument
 Reproducibility
 Reproducibility is the ability of an instrument to measure the same
input to the same value repeatedly over a short period of time when
there are changes in the measurement conditions, measuring
instrument, observer and location.
 Precision
 Precision is the measure of the degree to which successive
measurements differ from each other for multiple trials.
 Sensitivity

 Resolution
 The smallest incremental quantity that can be reliably measured.
 Error
 Statistical analysis of Test data
 By using an ammeter 10 students have taken readings of current
through a certain electrical circuit in Ampere as follows: 1.34, 1.38,
1.56, 1.47, 1.42, 1.44, 1.53, 1.48, 1.40, 1.59. Calculate (i) arithmetic
mean (ii) average deviation, (iii) standard deviation and (iv) variance.

 Solution:
 Arithmetic mean

 The average deviations of the readings is

 Standard deviation is

 Variance
 Loading Errors in series connected instruments

 The true value of current (for RM is zero)

 Current measured by the meter

 Loading error
 Loading Errors in parallel connected instruments

 The true value of the voltage across the resistor is (without the meter)

 Effective load resistance when meter

is connected

 Voltage measured by the voltmeter

 Loading error
 Numerical Problem
 An ammeter with internal resistance 150Ω is used to measure current
through 400Ω resistance for the circuit. Find the measured value of
current & percentage error in measurement.
1k Ohm 400 Ohm
Solution: A

 For an ideal ammeter, equivalent

24V

2k O hm
resistance of the circuit is
A
= 1000 + 400*2000/ (400+2000)
=1333.33 Ω
B
 Total current I = 24/1333.33 = 0.018 A
 Current through 400Ω resistance is
Iactual = (0.018*2000)/(2000+400) = 0.015 A.
 Considering internal resistance of ammeter, equivalent resistance
= 1000 + (400+150)*2000/ (400 + 150 + 2000) =1431.37Ω
 Then total current I= 24/1431.37 A = 0.0168 A.
 Numerical Problem

 Current through 400Ω resistance is

Im = (0.0168*2000)/(2000+400+150) = 0.0131 A

 Measured value of current is 0.0131 A

 So percentage error is = (0.0131 – 0.015)/0.015 = -12.67%

1k Ohm 400 Ohm

A

24V

2k O hm
A