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Cognition & Emotion

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Forewarning of Graphic Portrayal of Violence and the Experience of Suspenseful Drama

Minet de Wied ; Kathleen Hoffman ;David R. Roskos-Ewoldsen

To cite this Article de Wied, Minet , Hoffman, Kathleen andRoskos-Ewoldsen, David R.(1997) 'Forewarning of Graphic

Portrayal of Violence and the Experience of Suspenseful Drama', Cognition & Emotion, 11: 4, 481 494 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/026999397379890 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/026999397379890

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C O G N IT IO N A ND E M OT IO N , 1 9 9 7 , 1 1 (4 ), 4 8 1 4 9 4

F o re w a rn in g o f G ra p h ic P o rtra y a l o f V io le n ce a n d th e E x p erien c e o f S u sp en se fu l D ra m a
M in e t d e W ie d , K a th lee n H o ffm a n ,a n d D a v id R . R o sk o s-E w o ld se n
U n iv e r sity o f A la b a m a , U S A
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The pre s e nt s tudy w as de s ig n e d to as s e ss the ef fe c ts of f ore w arnin g of e x pli c it v iol e nc e on the e x pe rie nc e of s us pe nse . M ale and fe m ale unde rg radu ate s tude nts w e re re ad one o f tw o c ons e nt f orm s , w hi c h e ithe r ale rte d the m to the v iol e nt and pote n tial l y of fe ns iv e c onte nt of the lm the y w e re about to se e o r th at as sure d the m that the g raphic al ly v i ol e nt m ate rial had be e n c ut from the l m . P artic ipants the n w atc he d one o f tw o sus pe ns e fu l lm c li ps. Re sul ts sh ow that re spond e nts w ho w e re tol d that the l m c l ip c ontai ne d g raphic v iol e nc e e x pe rie n ce d si g ni c antl y m ore di stre s s than re s ponde nts w ho w e re tol d that g raphi c v i ole n t c onte nt had be e n c ut. Gen de r dif fe re nc e s al s o e m e rg e d, w i th fe m ale s re s pondi ng m ore s trong ly to the lm c li ps th an did the m al e s. Th e m e di ati ng role of e m pathic se ns itiv i ty in the e x pe rie nc e of su spe ns e w as c ons i de re d in i nte rpre ti ng th e obs e rv e d g e nde r dif fe re nc e s .

IN T R O DU C T IO N
T he now l e g e n dary s how e r-m u rde r s c e ne i n A lfre d Hi tc hc oc k s m ov ie P s yc h o (1 9 6 0 ) portray s a y oun g w om an (pl ay e d by Jan e t L e ig h) tak i ng a s how e r i n a run-dow n m ote l be fore re ti rin g for the n ig h t. T he v i e w e r fol lo w s the ordin ary b us i ne s s of a s how e r until a g ure i s s e e n throug h the c urtain . T h e c urtain is abruptl y pu ll e d as ide , and the w o m an i s brutall y s tab be d to de ath . T hi s s c e ne , l oc ate d i n th e rs t th ird of the l m , i s the m os t v i ol e nt s c e ne of the e n ti re p ic ture . Hi tc hc oc k s uc c e s s ful l y d e s i g ne d thi s s c e ne to e v o ke in te ns e frig h t re ac tio ns i n the audi e nc e , s o as to s e rv e the func tio n of c re ati ng s u s pe ns e i n l ate r sc e n e s . In Hitc hc oc k s w ords (i n T ruffaut, 1 9 8 3 , p. 2 7 7 ): `` the harrow in g m e m ory of thi s i ni tial ki ll i ng

Re que s ts for re prin ts s hould be s e nt to M in e t de W ie d, Utre c ht U niv e rs ity , D e partm e nt of P s y c honom ic s , H e id e lb e rg laan 2 , 3 5 8 4 C S U tre c ht, T he N e the rla nds . P re paratio n for this artic le w as s upport ed by a g rant from the Ne the rla nds O rg ani s ation for S c ie nti c Re s e arc h to M in e t de W ie d.

1 9 9 7 P s y c holo g y P re s s , an im pri nt of E rlb aum (U K) T ay l or & Fran c i s L td

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c arrie s o v e r to the su s pe n s e ful pas s a g e s that c om e l ate r. T he s how e r s c e n e s e ts up an e x p e c tati o n that late r s c e n e s i n the m ov ie w il l al s o c ontain g rap hic v i ol e nc e . T he fore w arn ing of e x pl i c i t v io le nc e and its e ffe c ts on fe e l in g s of s us pe ns e are the foc us of thi s s tudy . T he e x pe rie nc e of s us p e n s e i s c o m m only v i e w e d as a fe e l in g s tate broug ht on b y dram ati c pre s e ntati on s fe atu ring l i ke d protag o nis ts in dis tre s s i ng s i tuation . S u s pe ns e i s hy po th e s is e d to ari s e w he n v i e w e rs a nti c i pate po te nti all y e nd an g e ring outc om e s for l ik e d protag on is ts (e .g . B re w e r, 1 9 9 6 ; Norde n , 1 9 8 0 ; Z i l lm ann, 1 9 9 6 a) . V ariou s fac tors hav e be e n fou nd to i n ue nc e the e x pe rie nc e of s us pe ns e , s uc h as v ie w e rs pe rs pe c ti v e on th e no x i ous e v e nts (Dandoy & Gold s te i n, 1 9 9 0 ; Koriat, M e l km an, A v e rill , & L az arus , 1 9 7 2 ; L az arus , 1 9 6 4 ; L az arus & A l fe rt, 1 9 6 4 ; L az arus , O pton, Nom ik os , & Rank in , 1 9 6 5 ), durati on of h arm an ti c i pati on (de W i e d, 1 9 9 1 ; Nom ik os , O pton, A v e ril l, & L az arus , 1 9 6 8 ), v ie w e rs di s pos iti on to w ard the h e ro-protag oni s t (C om isky & B ry ant, 1 9 8 2 ; Jos e & B re w e r, 1 9 8 4 ), s u bj e c ti v e u nc e rtai nty about harm ful outc om e s (C om i s ky & B ry ant, 1 9 8 2 ), prior k now le dg e of thre ate ni ng e v e n ts (C antor, Z i e m ke , & S parks , 1 9 8 4 ; Hoffne r & C antor, 1 9 9 0 ), prio r e x p e rie nc e w ith l m (Pi ll ard, A tkin s on, & Fis he r, 1 9 6 7 ), and m e di ati ng proc e s s e s during c ov i e w i ng (W il s on & W e i s s , 1 9 9 3 ). A s v i e w e rs are w i tne s s e s to dram ati c e v e nts i nv o lv i ng o the rs, and thus are ne i the r di re c tly th rea te ne d nor b e n e te d by the dram ati c e v e nts , th e e x pe rie nc e of e m p a th i c d i s tr e s s i s c om m o nly th oug h t to be the on ly o r pre d om i nant s ourc e of s us pe ns e (e .g . Z il l m ann, 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 9 1 a) . A l th oug h i t i s true th at v ie w e rs are not d ire c tly thre ate n e d by the e v e n ts e ndang e ring the l i fe of a b e l ov e d protag on is t (af te r all , v i e w e rs are s af e l y in the ir s e ats at the c i ne m a) , the re is re as on to be l i e v e that the i m m i ne nt h os til e c on fron tati on be tw e e n the protag o nis t a nd antag oni s t c an pos e a d ire c t thre at to the v i e w e r a s w e l l . In re s e arc h on horror and frig hte ni ng m e di a pre s e ntatio ns , fo r e x am pl e , g raphi c v i ole nc e h as be e n id e nti e d as one of th e e l e m e nts i n m ov i e s c apab le of indu c ing s i g ni c ant re ac tion s of s tre s s (B oz utto , 1 9 7 5 ; C antor, 1 9 9 1 ; C antor & R eil l y , 1 9 8 2 ; Horow i tz , 1 9 6 9 ; Johns o n, 1 9 8 0 ; M ath ai, 1 9 8 3 ; T am borini , 1 9 9 1 ; T am borin i, S tiff, & He id e l , 1 9 9 0 ). Graphi c p ortray al of v iol e nc e not o nl y inv o ke s in te ns e e m otion al re ac ti on s d urin g l m e x po su re , it m ay al s o c re ate e nduring di s turban c e s s uc h as ni g htm are s , l os t s l e e p, re c urring i m ag e s , th oug hts , and the l i ke . Re al is ing , from p as t e x pe rie nc e s w i th lm s an d the l m the y are w atc hi ng that s om e e v e nts are too arou s i ng to v i e w , v ie w e rs m i g h t fe e l di re c tly thre ate n e d w hi l e w atc h ing a s us pe n s e ful lm . A c c ordi ng l y , w e propo se to m ake a d is ti nc tio n b e tw e e n v i e w e rs fe ar fo r the p r o ta g o n is t s s af e ty (i .e . e m p ath i c d is tre s s ), and v i e w e rs fe ar fo r p e r s o n a l w e ll -be i ng (i .e . n one m p ath i c di s tre s s ). De pe nd e n t o n th e ty p e of thre at i nv ol v e d i n a s us pe n s e ful l m ( e .g . thre ats that im pl y p hy s i c al

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harm as opp os e d to m ore abs trac t thre ats to the s oc i al or m oral orde r), the e x pe rie nc e of s us pe n s e m ay re s ul t: (1 ) from fe ar for the protag oni s t s w e lfare ; or (2 ) from fe ar for pe rsonal w e l l-b e i ng ; or (3 ) from the jo in t ope ratio n of both ki nds of fe ar re s pons e s . For e x am pl e , in s u s pe ns e fu l dram a ab out a m u rde r trial w he re a n in noc e nt, p arti c ul arly w e l l-l i ke d protag oni s t is ac c us e d of m u rde r, the v i e w e r i s l i ke l y to fe e l s u sp e ns e prim ari ly be c aus e h e /s he c are s for th e c harac te r an d fe ars that the p rotag oni s t w i ll be s e nte nc e d to de ath . In c ontras t, c on s i de r a `` s l as he r m ov ie about an e l us i v e ki l le r w ho ki l ls pe opl e at rand om . W hi le w atc hi ng the ki ll e r s e arc hin g fo r an und e te rm in e d v ic tim , s us pe ns e m ay be in duc e d prim ari ly be c aus e of v i e w e rs fe ar of frig ht. M os t s us pe ns e s c e n e s , ho w e v e r, p ortray a s y m pathe ti c and l i ke d protag o nis t w ho is about to be s tab be d, s h ot, o r torture d, and the l i ke . In s c e ne s li ke th e s e , s us p e n s e i s l ike l y to re s ul t from the j oi nt ope rati on o f v i e w e rs fe ar for th e protag oni s t s s af e ty , and fe ar for pe rso nal w e ll -be i ng . T he pre se nt s tudy e x pl ore s the re l ati on s hi p be tw e e n v i e w e r s fe ar for pe rsonal w e l l -be in g an d am oun t of s us pe ns e e x p e rie nc e d w hi l e w atc hi ng s us pe ns e f ul d ram a i nv ol v i ng a be l ov e d protag oni s t i n pe ril . V ie w e rs fe ar for p e rs onal w e l l-be i ng w il l be v ari e d by fore w arni ng of g rap hi c v i ol e nc e . E arly re s e arc h c ond uc te d by L az aru s a nd c o ll e ag ue s (e .g . Ko riat, M e lk m an, A v e ril l, & L az arus , 1 9 7 2 ; L az arus , 1 9 6 4 ; L az arus & A lfe rt, 1 9 6 4 ; L az aru s, O pton, Nom i kos , & Ran kin , 1 9 6 5 ) alre ady de m on s trate d that w h at c au s e s lm -i nduc e d s tre s s i s n ot th e s tre s s ful lm al one , but al s o the s i g ni c anc e of th e v i s ual i se d e v e nts as a p p r a i s e d by th e pe rson. T he s am e e v e nt m ay b e th re ate ni ng o r not, de pe ndi ng o n the i nte rpre tati on of the e v e nt. L az arus propo s e d th at apprai s al and c opi ng proc e s s e s s hape the e m oti onal re s pon s e , and that the s e proc e s s e s , i n tu rn, are i n u e n c e d by v ari able s in the e nv i ronm e nt and w i thin the pe rson . Fol lo w i ng c o g ni ti v e the orie s of e m oti on , as p ropos e d by L az arus (1 9 9 1 , 1 9 9 3 ) and oth e rs (e .g . Frij da, 1 9 8 6 ; O rtony , C lore , & C o ll i ns , 1 9 8 8 ), fore w arni ng m ay in ue nc e s us pe ns e by e l i c iti ng thoug h ts about thre ate ni ng e v e nts and by in ue nc i ng apprai s al s an d re apprai s al s of e v e nts pre s e n te d i n the l m . S tudi e s e x am ini ng the e ffe c ts of fore w arni ng o n th e e m otio nal i m pac t of s us pe ns e ful d ram a (e .g . C antor, Z i e m ke , & S p arks , 1 9 8 4 ; C o m i s ky & B ry an t, 1 9 8 2 ; Hoffne r & C an tor, 1 9 9 0 ) furthe r de m ons trate that fo rew arni ng of thre ate nin g e v e nts i n ue nc e s s u s pe ns e . For e x am pl e , C om is k y and B ry an t (1 9 8 2 ) v ari e d the le v e l of pe rc e i v e d li ke l i hood that th e protag on is t w o ul d s urv i v e . Rate d s us pe ns e w as at m ax i m u m w he n th e he ro s c hanc e s of s uc c e s s w e re v e ry s l im . In an oth e r s tudy , c o nduc te d by C antor, Z ie m ke , and S parks (1 9 8 4 ), re s pond e n ts w e re g i v e n e i the r no p rior in form ati on, onl y v ag ue i nform ati on, or e x p li c i t in fo rm atio n abou t w hat w oul d happe n i n the l m . A s e x pl i c itne s s of prio r i nform ati on i nc re as e d , re s po nde nts e x pe rie nc e d m ore i nte n se frig ht and ups e t re ac ti ons . In a m o re rec e n t

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s tud y w i th c hil dre n (Ho ff ne r & C antor, 1 9 9 0 ), re s po nde nts w e re e i the r fore w arne d ab out a m aj or e v e n t that w oul d e nd ang e r the l i fe of one o f th e m ain c harac te rs, or not fore w arne d. T hre at fore w arning in c re as e d c hi l dre n s fe ar re s po ns e s . T he s e s tudi e s al l v ari e d prior i nform ati on abo ut the c o urse of e v e nts (i .e . the e v e nts e nd ang e ring the l ife o f a li ke d protag oni s t), w hi c h c oul d, o f c ours e , hav e af fe c te d e i th e r v i e w e rs fe ar for th e p rotag o ni s t s s af e ty , v i e w e rs fe ar for p e rs onal w e l l-b e i ng , or bo th . T he p res e nt s tudy atte m pte d to m ani pul ate v i e w e rs fe ar for pe rson al w e ll -be i ng , w hi l e ke e p in g v i e w e rs fe ar for th e protag oni s t s s af e ty c o ns tan t. In c ontras t to the s tud ie s de s c ribe d e arl i e r, re s po nde nts w e re e qu al l y i nform e d abo ut th e po s s i bl e c ourse o f e v e nts , but w e re fore w arne d d iffe re ntl y w ith res pe c t to g rap hic p ortray al o f v i ol e n c e . W e re as on that re s pond e nts w ho are tol d that the l m m ay c ontai n e x pl ic i t v i ol e nc e m ay fe ar m ore stron g l y fo r the i r pe rs onal w e ll -be i ng , and the re fore e x pe rie nc e m ore su s pe n s e , than re s pon de nts w ho are tol d that e x p li c i t v i ol e nc e has be e n de l e te d .

M E T HO D O v erv iew
M al e and fe m al e u nde rg raduate s tude nts w e re re ad one of tw o c on se nt form s that e i th e r ale rte d the m to the v iol e nt and pote ntiall y o ffe ns iv e c onte n t of th e lm the y w e re ab out to s e e , or that as s ure d the m th at th e g rap hic al l y v i ol e nt m ate rial had b e e n c ut from the l m . S tude nts the n w atc he d a s us pe ns e fu l l m c l i p from e i the r Th e K i ll i n g F i e ld s , or O n c e U p o n a Tim e i n th e We s t. Partic i pants le v e l of s us pe n s e w as as s e s s e d on c om pl e ti on of th e l m c l ip .

S ub jects an d D esign
A to tal of 5 7 w om e n and 3 9 m e n w e re re c rui te d from i ntroduc tory c om m uni c ati on c las s e s at the Un iv e rs ity of A l ab am a. Partic i pan ts re c e i v e d parti al c re d it tow ard a c las s re qui re m e nt fo r the ir in v ol v e m e nt in th e e x pe rim e nt. No ne of the partic i pants had se e n e ithe r o f the m ov i e s us e d i n th is e x pe rim e nt. T he de s i g n us e d w as a 2 ( fo re w arni ng of e x pl i c it v i ol e nt c onte nt) 3 2 (g e n de r) 3 2 ( l m c l i p) b e tw e e n-s u bje c ts de s i g n. Ge nde r w as i nc l ude d be c aus e g e n de r di ffe re nc e s to horror hav e be e n rep orte d by di ffe re nt re s e arc he rs ( e .g . C anto r, Z i e m k e , & S parks , 1 9 8 4 ; Hoffne r & C antor, 1 9 9 0 ; M und orf, W e av e r, & Z i ll m ann, 1 9 8 9 ; S parks , 1 9 9 1 ). T w o s us pe n s e ful l m c l i ps (i.e . Th e K il l in g F ie l d s and O n c e U p o n a Tim e in th e We s t) w e re i nc l ude d to te s t the g e ne ral is ab il i ty of th e re s ul ts of the s tudy .

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M aterials
F i lm C l i p s . T h e p re s e nt s tu dy us e d s e que nc e s e x c e rpte d from S e rg i o L e one s lm O n c e U p o n a Tim e in th e We s t (1 9 6 9 ), and Rolan d Joffe s Th e K i l li n g F ie l d s (1 9 8 4 ). In both o f the s e lm c li ps any e x pl ic i t p ortray al of v i ol e nc e ( e .g . de tai le d s h ots of in jury , m uti lati on, o r torture ) w a s e dite d out. T he s e que nc e from O n c e U p o n a Tim e i n th e We s t be g ins w i th an i ntro duc tion of the m ai n c harac te rs: a farm er, hi s tw o s o ns , and a daug hte r. T he fam il y i s prep arin g a pi c ni c to c e le brate th e fac t that the farm er has found hi m s e l f a ne w w ife (hi s rst w i fe had di e d s i x y e ars pre v i ous l y ). T he atm os p he re is te ns e , how e v e r, be c aus e the c hi l dre n do n ot l ook fo rw ard to m e e ti ng the i r ne w m othe r. T e ns i on i nc re as e s w he n th e c onti nuou s dron e of c ic ad as s to ps : T he s il e nc e s ug g e s ts troub le . Uns e e n as s a il ants s tart s hooti ng ; ki ll i ng the fath e r, hi s e l de s t s on, and th e daug hte r. T he onl y one l e ft i s the li ttl e boy w h o c om e s runni ng ou t o f th e h ous e . M u s i c b e g in s on the s oun dtrac k , as the ki ll e rs e m e rg e from the bus he s , w al k up to the boy and c ons i de r w hat to do . T he y d e c ide to ki l l hi m a nd th e l e ade r re s a s hot. T he total runni ng ti m e of th e lm c l ip w as 9 m i nute s . S c e ne s from the l m Th e K il l in g F ie l d s w e re m ani pula te d to e s tab l i s h c onte x t and und e rstan din g o f hi s toric al s e tti ng as w e l l as c h arac te r d e v e lopm e nt. T h is m ov ie , s e t in C am bodi a, is an ac c ou nt of tw o N ew Yo r k Tim e s c orre s pon de nts , S i dne y , th e A m e ric an , and Di th Pran, hi s trans l ato r and fe ll ow rep orte r, c ov e rin g the nal day s of the w ar i n C am bodi a. T he e dite d l m c l i p o pe ns w ith S i dn e y ac c e pti ng an aw ard fo r h is c ov e rag e of the w ar i n C am bodi a. T he n the lm s w itc he s to S id ne y s i ni ti al arriv al in w ar-torn C am bodi a. T he c li p c ontinu e s w ith the re b e ls c ap tu ring th e c ity w he re S i dne y and Di th P ran are s tay ing . T h e c l ip c l os e s w i th S id ne y and Dith Pran be i ng c apture d by th e re be l s . O ne o f the oth e r pris o ne rs is s ho t and e nds w i th Dith Pran pl e adi ng w i th the c apture s . T he total runni ng ti m e of the e di te d lm c l i p w as 2 5 m i nute s . T hi s l m c li p w as l ong e r th an the c li p from O n c e U p o n a Tim e in th e We s t, be c aus e m ore lm m ate rial w as ne e de d to e s tab l i s h c o nte x t, s e ttin g , and c hara c te r de v e l opm en t. C o n se n t Sc r i p t. Fore w a rnin g of v i ole n t c onte nt w as m ani pul ate d in the i nform e d c ons e n t fo rm s for the d iffe re nt e x p e rim e ntal c ondi ti on s . S pe c i fic all y , p arti c i pants w e re to ld that be c aus e of the n atu re of the s tudy , the Ins ti tuti onal Re v i e w B oard of the Uni v e rsi ty re qu ire d a s pe c i c w arn ing to be g i v e n to al l s ubj e c ts . T hos e i n th e P G- c on di ti on w e re tol d that the m ov ie s e g m e nt that the y w e re ab out to s e e had be e n rate d `` R b ut that al l v i ole n t e le m e nts had b e e n e di te d from the m ov ie . T hos e i n the R-c o ndi tion w e re told th at the y w e re w atc hi ng a m ov i e that had be e n rate d `` R be c aus e of e x pl i c i t g raphi c v i ol e nc e . In a dditi on, re s e arc h partic i pants w e re told th at

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the m ov i e h ad re c e i v e d the `` R rati ng w h e n m ore g raph ic v i ole n c e w as al l ow e d i n m ov ie s than c urre ntl y w as the c as e . Furthe rm ore , parti c ipa nts w e re told th at i f v i e w in g e x pl i c i t v i ol e nc e w as tro ubl e s om e for the m , the y s h oul d di s c on ti nue the i r parti c ip ati on i n the e x pe rim e nt. No parti c ip ants di s c on ti nue d the i r parti c i pati on in the e x p e rim e nt.

S usp ense M ea su res

A fte r l m e x p os ure , am o unt o f s us pe ns e w as m e asu re d on u ni pol ar 1 1 po in t s c al e s , rang i ng fro m 0 (not at a ll ) to 1 0 (v e ry m u c h). First of al l, re s p onde nts w e re as k e d to c om pl e te th e ite m : Ho w s us pe n s e fu l w a s the c l ip that y o u hav e j us t s e e n? T he n e x t 7 s c ale s m e as ure d s y m p to m s thoug h t to be s pe c i c to th e e x pe rie nc e of s us p e ns e (i .e . te n s e , w o rrie d, e nte rtai ne d, s c are d, ho pe ful , i nv ol v e d, and anx i ous ). Re sp ond e nts w e re as ke d to i ndi c ate the de g re e to w hi c h the adj e c tiv e s w e re d e s c rip ti v e of the i r e m otio nal s tate w hi le w atc hi ng the l m c li p.

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M an ip ulatio n C heck
T o de te rm i ne the e ffe c ts of fore w arni ng o n re s pon de nts fe ar for p e rso nal w e ll -be i ng , re s pond e n ts w e re as k e d to c om pl e te the fol l ow ing ite m : W e re y o u s c are d that y ou m ig h t s e e s om e thi ng that y ou di d n ot w ant to se e ? W e e x pe c te d re s pond e n ts to be m ore s c are d to s e e s om e th in g the y di d not w ant to s e e in the R-c ondi tio n than i n the P G- c o nditi on. T o c h e c k on po s s i bl e (un inte nde d ) e ffe c ts of fo re w arni ng of e x pl i c it v i ol e nc e o n v ie w e rs fe ar for th e protag oni s t s s af e ty , re s p onde nts w e re as ke d to in dic ate ho w m uc h the y fe are d for the protag o nis t s s af e ty . A l l rati ng s w e re m ad e on 1 1 -poi nt s c al e s , rang i ng from 0 (not at al l ) to 1 0 (v e ry m uc h).

T ra it Em p athy
Ind iv i du al di ffe re nc e s i n e m path ic s e ns i ti v i ty hav e b e e n s how n to pl ay an i m p ortan t role in de te rm i nin g e m otio nal in v ol v e m e nt i n dram a (s e e e .g . Dav i s , Hul l , Y oung , & W arre n, 1 9 8 7 ; de W ie d, Z i l lm ann, & O rdm an, 1 9 9 4 ; C hoti , M ars to n, Hols to n, & Hart, 1 9 8 7 ; S apol s ky & Z i l lm ann, 1 9 7 8 ; T am b orin i, S tiff, & He i de l , 1 9 9 0 ; Z il l m an n, 1 9 9 1 b, 1 9 9 4 ). T o e x pl ore w he the r e m p ath y pla y s a m e di ati ng rol e in th e e x pe rie n c e o f s u s pe ns e , e m p ath i c s e n s iti v i ty w a s al s o m e as ure d. E m pathi c s e n s iti v i ty w as as s e s s e d w i th a m e as ure d e v e lop e d b y Dav is (1 9 8 3 ), and re ne d by T am borini and M e ttl e r (1 9 9 0 ). T he i ns trum e nt i nc lu de s 3 4 i te m s (e .g . `` I te nd to g e t e m otiona ll y i nv olv e d i n frie nd s prob le m s , `` W he n I w atc h a g o od m o v i e , I c an v e ry e as i l y put m y s e lf i n the pl ac e of the le ad ing c harac te r ), w h ic h are rate d on a 5 -poi nt s c ale , ran g i ng from 1 (s tron g ly di s ag re e ) to 5 (s trong l y ag re e ).

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Pro ce du re
Re s p onde nts c am e to a 2 2 -s e at res e arc h the atre . T he y w e re g re e te d b y a fe m al e e x pe rim e nte r, w ho in fo rm ed the m about the s tudy . S tud e n ts w e re told that th e y w oul d be partic i patin g in tw o diffe re nt s tudi e s an d th at ac c ordi ng l y th e y w ou ld ha v e to l l out tw o di ffe re nt c ons e nt form s. T he y w e re tol d that the rs t s tud y c onc e rne d a s urv e y of s tude n ts atti tude s . T he y re ad an d s i g ne d a c o ns e nt form and c om pl e te d the e m pathy s c al e . T h e n parti c ip ants re ad an d s ig n e d e i th e r the `` PG or `` R rati ng s e nhanc e d c o ns e nt form . B oth the PG- and R-g roups w e re g i v e n the oppo rtu nity to di s c on ti nue p arti c i pati on be fore th e m ov i e s tarte d. A l l partic i pants c onti nue d i n the e x pe rim ent. S tu de nts i n both the PG- and R-c on diti ons s aw the s am e lm c l i p, e i the r O n c e U p o n a Tim e i n th e We s t or Th e K i l li n g F ie l d s . Im m e di ate l y af te r the l m c l ip, s tu de nts w e re i ns truc te d to c om ple te the i te m s as s e s s i ng am o unt o f s us pe ns e e x pe rie nc e d, ite m s as s e s s i ng p arti c i pant s l e v e l of fe ar for the protag oni s t s s af e ty and fe ar fo r pe rsonal thre at, and ite m s as s e s s in g partic i pant s e x pe c tati on s c onc e rni ng de g re e o f g raphi c v iol e nc e as s oc i ate d w ith the n al outc om e . A d diti onal ite m s w e re i nc lu de d to re c ord de m og raph ic i nform ati on, and w he th e r res ponde nts had s e e n the lm be fore . O n c om pl e ti on, p arti c ip an ts w e re thorou g hl y de brie fe d and di s m i s s e d.

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R E S U LTS M anipu la tion C h eck

Re s p ons e s on the s c al e m e as u ring re s pond e nt s fe ar fo r pe rsonal w e ll be i ng w e re analy s e d u s i ng a 2 (fore w arn ing ) 3 2 (g e nde r) 3 2 (m ov ie c li p) A NO V A . A s e x pe c te d, the re s ults re v e ale d a m ain e ffe c t of fo rew arni ng [ F (1 , 8 8 ) = 4 .1 5 , P < .0 5 ] . Re s pond e n ts i n th e R-c o nditi on (M = 4 .8 8 ) w e re m ore s c are d abo ut w hat the y w oul d s e e than w e re re s pond e n ts in the PG-c ond iti on (M = 3 .6 2 ). T he re w as al s o a m ain e ffe c t of g e nd e r [ F (1 , 8 8 ) = 3 9 .5 5 , P < .0 0 1 ] , s uc h that w om e n (M = 6 .2 2 ) i ndi c ate d g re ate r fe ar abou t w h at the y w oul d s e e than m e n (M = 2 .2 8 ) did . No othe r m ain e ffe c ts or i nte rac tio ns w e re s i g ni c ant. Re s u lts o btai ne d on the s c al e m eas u ring v i e w e rs fe ar for th e protag oni s t s s af e ty w e re als o s ubj e c te d to anal y s i s of v arianc e . T he anal y s i s re v e ale d a g e nde r m ai n e ffe c t [ F (1 , 8 8 ) = 1 3 .8 3 , P < .0 0 1 ] . W om e n (M = 7 .8 5 ) e x pre s s e d m ore fe ar for the protag on is t s s af e ty th an m e n (M = 6 .0 4 ) d id . No o the r m ai n e ffe c ts o r i nte rac ti ons w e re s i g ni c ant. Re s u lts thus s ug g e st that re s p onde nts fe ar for the p rotag oni s t s s af e ty re m ai ne d unaf fe c te d by the f ore w arni ng m anip ulati on.

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M easu re s o f S u spe nse

S us pe ns e j udg e m e nts (i.e . re s u lts obtai ne d on the s c al e m e as uring th e am ount of s u s pe ns e e x pe rie nc e d w h il e w atc hi ng the c l i p) w e re s ubj e c te d to anal y s i s of v ari anc e us i ng a 2 (fo re w arni ng ) 3 2 (g e nde r) 3 2 ( l m c l ip ) A NO V A . T he anal y s i s re v e a le d a s ig ni c ant fo rew arni ng by g e n de r i nte rac tio n [ F (1 , 8 8 ) = 4 .7 6 , P < .0 5 ] . T he as s oc i ate d m e an s are g i v e n i n T abl e 1 . S u rpris in g ly , w om en s how e d no e ffe c t of the fore w arni ng m anip ul ati on. Rath e r, i n both the R - and P G- c o ndi ti ons , w om e n s how e d e qu all y h ig h l e v e l s of s us pe n se . M e n, how e v e r, e x pe rie nc e d m ore s u s pe ns e i n th e Rc ond iti on th an i n the PG-c ondi ti on. T he m ai n e ffe c t for g e nde r w as m arg in all y s i g ni c ant [ F (1 , 8 8 ) = 3 .0 7 , P < .1 0 ] . W o m e n te nde d to j udg e the c l i ps as m ore su s pe n s e ful th an di d m e n. No m ai n e ffe c ts or othe r i nte rac ti ons w e re s i g ni c an t. Rati ng s on th e 7 s c al e s d e s ig ne d to m e as ure s y m ptom s thoug ht to b e s p e c i c to the e x p e rie nc e of s us pe ns e w e re s ubj e c te d to a v arim ax , princ i pal -c om pone nts for fac tor anal y s i s . T w o fac tors e m e rg e d . T h e rst fac tor, w hi c h ac c ounte d for 6 1 .7 % o f the v ari anc e , p rov e d to be s pe c i c al ly s e n s i ti v e to fe e l i ng s of d is tre s s . T hi s fac tor, l abe ll e d Di s tre s s , s h ow e d hi g h load ing s on s c are d (.9 5 ), te ns e (.9 4 ), and w orrie d (.9 8 ). A c om pos i te m e as ure of Di s tre s s w as c re ate d by av e rag i ng the rati ng s on the s e th re e s c al e s (C ronbac h s al pha = .9 4 ). T he se c ond fac tor ac c ounte d for 1 8 % o f the v arianc e . T hi s fac tor, l abe l le d E nte rtai nm ent, s ho w e d hi g h l oadi ng s o n e nte rtain e d (.8 8 ), i nv ol v e d (.7 7 ), and h ope ful (.8 1 ). W e v i e w th is fac to r to m e as ure how e nte rtai ni ng the l m c l i p w as . A c om po s i te m e as ure w as c re ate d by av e rag i ng the rating s (C ronb ac h s alp ha = .9 3 ). Re s ul ts o btai ne d on the E nte rtai nm e n t m e as ure w il l b e di s c us s e d l ate r (s e e De m and E ffe c ts ). A nx i ous di d not l oad on e i th e r fac to r.

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TA B LE 1 M e an S u s p en se S co res a s a Fu n c tio n o f F ilm R a tin g s an d G e n d e r G ender Me a s u r e S us pe ns e ju dg e m e n ts F il m R atin g s P G -ratin g R- ra ting C om bin e d P G -ratin g R- ra ting C om bin e d M ale 5 .8 2 b 7 .7 0 6 .7 6 4 .2 0 5 .6 5 a 4 .8 8
a

F e m a le 7 .7 7 7 .5 6 7 .6 7 6 .9 7 7 .1 7 b 7 .0 7

G ender C o m b in e d 6 .8 0 7 .6 3

D is tre s s m e a s ure

5 .5 4 b 6 .4 1

No te: S c ore s are c om bin e d ov e r the tw o lm c lip s . A s ubje c t s rat in g c ould v a ry from 0 (not at all) to 1 0 (v e ry m uc h). M e a ns hav in g dif fe re nt s upe rs c rip ts dif f e r at P < .0 5 by F -tes t.

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T he c om p os i te m e as u re of Di s tre s s w as s u bj e c te d to an aly s is o f v ari an c e . T h e anal y s i s produc e d a m ain e ffe c t of fore w arni ng [ F (1 , 8 8 ) = 4 .2 8 , P < .0 5 ] , and a m ai n e ffe c t of g e nde r [ F (1 , 8 8 ) = 2 2 .8 8 , P < .0 0 1 ] . T he di s tribu ti on of m e ans , di s pl ay e d i n T abl e 1 , s how s that p arti c i pants i n the R-c on diti on re p orte d m ore dis tre s s than parti c ipan ts in th e PG-c ondi ti on, and th at w om e n re porte d m ore di s tre s s tha n m e n. No othe r m ai n e ffe c ts or i nte rac tio ns w e re s i g ni c ant.

Em p athy and S u spe nse

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For e x plorato ry pu rpos e s add iti onal an al y s e s w e re pe rform e d to d e te rm ine the role of e m path y i n th e e x p e rie nc e of s us pe ns e . First of all , a c orre lation al ana ly s is re v e ale d s ig ni c ant c orre l ati ons be tw e e n e m pathic s e ns i tiv i ty and p arti c ip ants s us pe ns e j ud g e m e nt [ r (9 5 ) = .2 6 , P < .0 1 ] , and fe e l i ng s of dis tre s s [ r (9 5 ) = .5 0 , P < .0 0 1 ] . T o e x pl ore furthe r the re latio ns hi p be tw e e n e m pathi c s e ns i tiv i ty and the e x pe rie nc e of s us pe n s e , w e di v i de d the res pond e nt p ool at th e m e di an i nto l ow and hi g h e m path i s e rs (i .e . p e rsons c harac te ris e d by lo w or hi g h e m path i c s e ns iti v i ty ). A t-te s t pe rform e d o n the e m path y m e as ure y ie l de d a s i g ni c ant di ffe re nc e i n th e e m pathy s c o re s for the hi g h (M = 3 .6 1 ) and l ow (M = 3 .1 0 ) e m path is e rs [ t(9 4 ) = 1 2 .3 8 , P < .0 0 1 ] . T he s u s pe ns e m e as u res w e re s ub je c te d to t-te s ts , ac c o rdi ng l y . Parti c ipan ts hi g h i n e m path i c s e n s i ti v i ty re s pon de d m ore s trong ly to the lm s than di d parti c ipants lo w i n e m path i c s e ns i ti v ity i n te rm s o f s us pe ns e [ M = 7 .8 4 and 6 .7 6 , re s pe c tiv e l y , t(9 4 ) = 2 .3 2 , P < .0 5 ] , an d di s tre s s [ M = 7 .1 9 an d 5 .0 6 , re s pe c tiv e l y , t(9 4 ) = 4 .7 9 , P < .0 0 1 ] . T h e analy s e s thus c le arl y s h ow th at e m path i c s e ns i ti v i ty i n ue nc e s th e e x pe rie nc e o f s u s pe ns e .

D em and E ffects
O n e pos s i bl e li m itati on o f thi s s tudy i nv ol v e s de m and e ffe c ts . P e rhaps re s e arc h partic i pants re as on e d that w e s tre s s e d the p ortray al of e x pl i c i t v i ol e nc e in th e R-c ondi tio n be c aus e w e w ante d the m to fe e l s us p e n s e and w e pl ay e d dow n the v io le nc e in th e P G-c ondi ti on be c aus e w e di d n ot w an t the m to e x pe rie nc e s u s pe ns e . T hus , the re s ul ts of thi s e x pe rim e nt c oul d s i m ply be due to de m and e ffe c ts . W e fe e l, how e v e r, that the re s u lts obtai ne d o n the E nte rtain m e nt m e as ure arg ue ag a ins t this i nte rpre tati on of the d ata. T he de m and e f fe c ts e x pl anati on of the s u s pe ns e nd in g s w oul d s ug g e s t that parti c i pants w o ul d al s o j ud g e that w e thou g ht the R-rate d v e rsi on sh oul d b e m o re e nte rtai ni ng an d, c o nv e rse l y , the PG-rate d v e rsi on s hou ld be l e s s e nte rtai ni ng be c aus e s c e ne s m ay hav e be e n c ut from the c l i p. T he c o m pos i te m eas u re of E nte rtainm e nt w as s ubj e c te d to anal y s i s of

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v ari anc e . C ontrary to the de m a nd e ffe c ts e x pl anati on, the re w e re no s i g n i c ant m ai n e ffe c ts or s i g ni c ant i nte rac ti ons .

DIS C U S S IO N
T h e nd in g s of th e pre s e nt s tudy s how that fore w arni ng o f e x pl ic i t v i ol e nc e af fe c ts the e x pe rie nc e o f s u s pe ns e . Re s pond e nts w ho w e re tol d that the l m c l i p c ontai ne d e x pl i c it v i ol e nt c onte nt re porte d m o re dis tre s s th an re s pon de nts w ho w e re told that e x pl i c it v i ol e nt c o nte n t had b e e n c ut from th e lm . Re s ul ts furthe r s how that re s po nde nts w ho w e re tol d that the l m c l i p c ontai ne d g raphi c v i ole n c e e x pre s s e d m ore fe ar to s e e s om ethi ng the y di d no t w ant to s e e than re s ponde n ts w ho w e re tol d that g raph ic v iol e nc e had be e n c ut. A s re s ponde n ts re porte d e qual l e v e l s of fe ar for the p rotag o ni s t s s af e ty , the res ul ts s u g g e s t that th e ob s e rv e d s us p e n s e d iffe re nc e s fol l ow e d from d iffe re nc e s in no ne m path i c d is tre s s rath e r than e m path i c d is tre s s . W e do no t m e an to s ay that fore w arn in g d id not i n ue nc e e m path i c re ac tio ns at al l . O n the c ontrary , it s e e m s v e ry l i ke ly th at fore w arn ing e nha nc e d e m path i c re ac ti ons i n b o th th e R- and PG-c ondi tio ns . In b oth c ond iti ons , re s po nde nts w e re tol d th at th e l m c li ps had be e n rate d `` R be c aus e o f e x pli c i t v iol e nt c onte nt. T hi s s tate m e nt i m p l ie d that horribl e thi ng s w ou ld happe n to the m ai n protag on is t. Kn ow ing th at h orrible thi ng s w i ll happe n to the m ai n protag o nis t, e v e n thoug h i t w il l h appe n off-s c re e n, m ay e nhanc e e m path ic re ac tions (T am borini , 1 9 9 1 ; Z i ll m a nn, 1 9 9 1 b), an d c oul d thus hav e e n hanc e d e m pathi c re ac tio ns in bo th c ondi tio ns . It s houl d al s o be m e nti one d that w e do n ot kno w h ow w e l l the m e as u re s that w e re e m pl oy e d to m e as ure e m p ath i c and none m pathic d is tre s s re e c t the und e rly ing e x pe rie nc e . A m e as u re o f none m path i c dis tre s s w as ob tai ne d by as ki ng re s po nde nts to i ndi c ate h ow s c are d the y w e re to s e e s o m e thi ng the y di d not w ant to s e e . It s e e m s qui te p os s i bl e that th e an s w e rs to thi s q ue s tion re e c t no t only re s pon de nts fe ar for p e rsonal w e l l-be i ng , bu t al s o fe ar fo r the protag on is t s s af e ty . It is im portant th at fu tu re s tu die s i n thi s are a atte m p t to e m plo y m ore d ire c t m e as u re s of v i e w e rs e x pe c tan c i e s and fe ar-i nduc i ng thou g hts (s e e e .g . de W i e d & Z i ll m ann , 1 9 9 6 ; Frie dric hs e n , 1 9 9 6 ). T he pre s e nt s tud y , how e v e r, c l e arly de m ons trate d that fore w arni ng o f e x pl i c i t v i ol e nc e in ue nc e s e m otiona l re ac ti ons to s u s pe ns e fu l dram a. In l in e w i th c og ni ti v e the orie s of e m oti on w e re as one d th at fore w arn ing m a y e l i c i t thou g hts ab out the v i s ual pre s e n tati on o f e v e n ts and m ay i n u e nc e apprai s al s o f the e v e n ts p re s e nte d i n the l m . For e x am pl e , m ore c ue s m ay hav e be e n apprai s e d as th re ate ni ng i n the R-c ond iti on as o ppos e d to th e P G- c o ndi ti on, re s ulti ng in e nh anc e d e m otio nal re s p ons e s i n the R-c on di tio n. In add iti on, s im i lar e v e nts m ay hav e be e n app rai s e d d iffe re ntl y in bo th c ond iti ons , s uc h that i n the R -c ond iti on thre at c u e s w e re re c og n is e d

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alre ady e arl y in the l m . M ore ov e r, fore w arni ng of e x pl ic i t v i ol e nc e m ay hav e e l i c i te d thoug h ts a bout nox i ous e v e nts th at produc e d e m oti on al re ac ti ons al re ady prior to th e lm . Fore w arni ng c oul d th us hav e p rolo ng e d the anti c i pato ry tim e pe riod in the R -c ondi tion , re s ul ti ng i n h ig h e r le v e l s of s us pe ns e . A l te rnati v e l y , the m ani pul ation m ay hav e re lax e d s u bj e c ts i n the P Gc ondi tio n by te l li ng the m tha t g raph ic m ate rial had be e n de le te d, j us t as fore w arnin g of g rap hi c v i ole nc e m ay hav e arous e d thos e i n the R-c ondi tion . T hre at c ue s , o th e rw i s e pe rhaps a pprais e d as thre ate ni ng , m i g ht hav e be e n ap prais e d as l e s s th re ate ni ng or non thre ate ni ng in th e PG-c ondi ti on, and re d uc e d e m oti onal re ac ti ons ac c ordi ng l y . W he the r fore w arni ng arous e d s ubj e c ts i n the R -c on di ti on, re l ax e d s ubj e c ts i n the PG-c ondi tion , or bo th , re m ai ns o pe n to qu e s ti on . It w ou ld s e e m adv is ab le to i nc l ude a c o ntrol c on diti on i n future re s e a rc h i n w hi c h su bj e c ts are g i v e n no prior i nform ati on about v i ol e nt c on te nt. A tte ntion s houl d al s o be g iv e n to trans fe r proc e s s e s . Fol l ow in g the e x c itati on-trans fe r paradi g m , as prop os e d by Z i l lm ann (1 9 8 3 , 1 9 9 6 b), i t c oul d be arg ue d that the obs e rv e d e f fe c ts w e re m e di ate d by trans fe r proc e s s e s i n addi tio n to app rai s al proc e s s e s . T rans fe r th e ory proj e c ts rapi d c og ni tiv e adj us tm en t to c hang in g e nv iron m e ntal c ond iti ons , bu t s l ug g i s h e x c itato ry adj us tm e nt. R es idua l e x c itati o n from p re c e d in g e m otion al re s pon se s m ay b le nd w i th e x c i tati on from s ubs e q ue nt e m otion al re s pon se s , le ad in g to a m ore in te ns e e m oti on al e x pe rie nc e that th e c on dition w oul d othe rw is e i nd uc e . A c c ordi ng ly , the bui l d-up of arous al c aus e d by e m oti onal re ac tio ns p rior to the l m , or e arl y in the l m , m ay hav e i nte n s i e d s u bs e que n t e m otio nal re s pons e s w h il e w atc h ing th e l m c l i ps i n the pre s e nt s tudy . Future re s e arc h s houl d c on ti nue to e x am i ne m ore c l os e l y the c og ni ti v e and e x c i tato ry m e diati on i n the e ffe c ts o f fore w arni ng on s us pe ns e . A n othe r i nte re sti ng ndi ng obtain e d i n the pre s e n t s tudy i s the e m erg e nc e of g e nde r di ffe re n c e s i n the inte ns i ty of re s ponde n ts e m oti on al re ac ti ons to the l m c l ip s . W om e n te nd e d to j udg e the l m c l ip s as m ore s us pe ns e ful , an d re porte d m ore d is tre s s than m e n di d. T he o bs e rv e d g e nde r di ffe ren c e s c o ul d be s e e n to fo ll ow , for e x am p le , from di ff e re nc e s i n c opi ng be hav i our or d iffe re nc e s in s e l f-re ports of fe ar (s e e e .g . B rod y , 1 9 8 5 ). M ore ov e r, addi ti on al ndi ng s obtain e d in the pre s e nt s tudy s ug g e s t that g e nde r di ffe re nc e s i n e m p ath i c s e n s iti v i ty m i g ht und e rly the o bs e rv e d g e nde r diffe re nc e s as w e ll . First, c ons is te nt w ith e arli e r re s e arc h (e .g . de W ie d, Z i ll m ann , & O rdm an , 1 9 9 4 ; Fox , Gi bbs , & A ue rbac h, 1 9 8 5 ; Go ld s te in & M i c hae l s , 1 9 8 5 ; Hoffm an , 1 9 7 7 ; L aFranc e & B anaji , 1 9 9 2 ), the pre s e nt s tudy prov i de s e v i de nc e f or g e nde r di ffe re nc e s i n e m path ic s e ns i tiv ity . In c orre s ponde nc e w i th e arl ie r obs e rv atio ns , the pre s e nt e x pe rim e nt s how s th at w om e n are m o re e m p ath i c than m e n [ M = 3 .5 0 and 3 .1 8 ,

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re s p e c ti v e l y , t(9 4 ) = 5 .4 3 , P < .0 0 1 ] . S e c ond, th e pre s e nt e x pe rim ent s ho w s that indi v i du al di ffe re n c e s i n e m p ath i c s e ns i tiv ity i n u e n c e the e x pe rie nc e of s u s pe ns e . Re s ul ts s u g g e s t th at hi g h e m p ath i s e rs e x pe rie nc e d m ore s u s pe ns e (as m e as u red on both s us pe ns e m e as ure s ) than d id lo w e m pathi s e rs. In v i e w o f the s e ndi ng s , w o m e n m ay be e x pe c te d to e x hi bi t s tron g e r e m otion al re ac ti ons to s u s pe ns e ful dram a than m e n. C le arl y , bo th g e n de r di ffe re nc e s and di ffe re nc e s i n e m path ic s e n s i ti v i ty s hou ld be c on s ide re d m ore c l os e l y in re s e arc h on e m otio nal re s p ons e s to s u s pe ns e ful dram a.
M anus c rip t re c e iv e d 1 Fe bruary 1 9 9 5 Re v is e d m anus c ri pt re c e iv e d 1 S e ptem be r 1 9 9 6
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R E F E R E N C ES
B oz utto, J.C . (1 9 7 5 ). C in e m atic ne uros is fol lo w in g ``T he E x orc i s t . Jo u r n a l o f Ne r v o u s a n d Me n tal D is e a s e , 1 6 1 , 4 3 4 8 . B re w e r, W .F. (1 9 9 6 ). T he nature of narrat iv e s us pe ns e and the proble m of re re adi ng . In P . V orde re r, H.J. W ulf f, & M . Frie dric hs e n (E ds .) , Su sp e n s e : C o n c e p tu a li za tio n s , th e o r e ti c a l a n a l ys e s a n d e m p i r i c a l e xp l o r a ti o n s ( p p . 1 0 7 1 2 7 ). M ah w ah , N J: L a w re nc e E rlb a um A s s oc iate s Inc . B rody , L .R. (1 9 8 5 ). G ende r di ffe re nc e s i n e m otional d e v e lo pm e nt: A re v i e w of the orie s and re s e arc h. Jo u r n a l o f P e r s o n a li ty, 5 3 , 1 0 2 1 4 9 . C antor, J. (1 9 9 1 ). Frig ht re s pons e s to m as s m e di a produc tions . In J. B ry ant & D . Z il lm a nn (E ds .) , R e s p o n d in g to th e s c r e e n : R e c e p tio n a n d r e a c ti o n p r o c e s s e s (pp. 1 6 9 1 9 7 ). H il ls d ale , N J: L aw re nc e E rl baum A ss oc iate s Inc . C antor, J., & Re ill y , S . (1 9 8 2 ). A dol e s c e nts frig ht re ac tio ns to te l e v is io n and lm s . Jo u r n a l o f C o m mu n ic a tio n , 3 2 , 8 7 9 9 . C antor, J., Z ie m ke , D., & S parks , G.G . (1 9 8 4 ). E ffe c t of fore w arnin g on e m otio na l re s pons e s to a horro r lm . Jo u r n a l o f B r o a d c a s tin g , 2 8 , 2 1 3 1 . C hoti, S .E ., M arston, A .R., Hol s ton, S .G., & H art, J.T . (1 9 8 7 ). G e nde r and pe rs ona li ty v aria ble s in lm -i nduc e d s adne s s and c ry in g . Jo u rn a l o f So c ia l a n d C l in ic a l P s yc h o lo g y, 5 , 5 3 5 5 4 4 . C om is ky , P., & B ry ant, J. (1 9 8 2 ). Fac tors i nv ol v e d in g e ne rat in g s us pe ns e . H u m a n C o m m u n ic a tio n R e s e a r c h , 9 , 4 9 5 8 . D andoy , A .C ., & Gold st ein , A .G . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . T he us e of c og nitiv e apprai s al to re duc e s tre s s re ac tio ns : A re pli c ation. Jo u r n a l o f So c ia l B e h a v io r a n d P e r s o n a lity, 5 , 2 7 5 2 8 5 . D av is , M .H . (1 9 8 3 ). M e as urin g in div id ua l dif f e re nc e s i n e m pathy : E v id e nc e for a m ult idim e ns i onal approac h. Jo u rn a l o f Pe r s o n a lity a n d So c i a l Ps yc h o lo g y, 4 4 , 1 1 3 1 2 6 . D a v i s , M .H ., H ul l, J.G ., Y o ung , R.D ., & W arre n, G .G . (1 9 8 7 ). E m otio nal re ac tions to dram atic lm s tim uli : T he in ue nc e of c og nitiv e and e m otiona l e m pathy . Jo u r n a l o f P e r s o n a lity a n d So c ia l P s yc h o lo g y, 5 2 , 1 2 6 1 3 3 . de W ie d, M . (1 9 9 1 ). Th e r o l e o f tim e s tru c tur e s in th e e xp e r ie n c e o f lm s u s p e n s e a n d d u r a tio n . U npubl is he d d oc toral di s s e rt ation. U niv e rsi ty of A m s te rdam , T he N e the rlan ds . de W ie d, M ., & Z ill m ann , D. (1 9 9 6 ). T he util ity of v ario us re s e arc h appro ac he s in the e m piri c al e x plo rat io n of s us pe ns e ful dra m a . In P . V orde re r, H .J. W ulf f, & M . Fri e dric hs e n (E ds .) , Su s p e n s e : C o n c e p tu a li za tio n s , th e o r e tic a l a n a l ys e s a n d e m p ir ic a l e xp lo ra tio n s (p p. 2 5 5 2 8 2 ). M ahw ah, N J: L aw re nc e E rlb aum A s s oc iat es Inc . de W ie d, M ., Z il lm ann, D ., & O rdm an, V . (1 9 9 4 ). T he role of e m pathic di s tre s s i n the e njo y m e nt o f c in e m atic trag e dy . P o e tic s , 2 3 , 9 1 1 0 6 .

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Fo x , M ., G ib bs , M ., & A ue rbac h, D. (1 9 8 5 ). A g e and g e nde r dim e ns io ns of fri e nds hip . P s yc h o lo g y o f Wo m e n Q u a r ter ly , 9 , 4 9 8 5 0 2 . Frie dric hs e n, M . (1 9 9 6 ). Prob le m s in m e a s urin g s us pe ns e . In P . V orde re r, H.J. W ul ff, & M . Frie dric h s e n ( Ed s .) , Su s p e n s e : C o n c e p tu a l iz a tio n s , th e o r e tic a l a n a l ys e s a n d e m p ir ic a l e xp lo r a tio n s (p p. 3 2 9 3 4 6 ). M ahw ay , N J: L aw re nc e E rlb aum A s s oc ia tes Inc . Frijd a , N .H . (1 9 8 6 ). Th e e m o tio n s . C am brid g e : C a m bridg e Uni v e rs ity P re ss . G old s tein, A .P., & M ic hae ls , G .Y . (1 9 8 5 ). E m p a th y: D e v e l o p m e n t, tra in in g , a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s . H ill s dale , N J: L aw re nc e E rlb aum A s s oc ia tes Inc . H offm an, M .L . (1 9 7 7 ). S e x di ffe re nc e s in e m pathy and re la ted be hav i ors . P s yc h o lo g i c a l B u lle tin , 8 4 , 7 1 2 7 2 2 . H offne r, C ., & C a ntor, J. (1 9 9 0 ). Fo re w arnin g of a thre at and pri or know l e dg e of outcom e : E ffe c ts on c hild re n s e m otio nal re s pons e s to a lm s e q ue nc e . H u m a n C o m mu n ic a tio n R es e a r c h , 1 6 , 3 2 3 3 5 4 .
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H orow i tz, M .J. (1 9 6 9 ). P s y c hic traum a: R e turn of i m ag e s afte r a s tre s s lm . Ar c h i v e s o f G e n e r a l P s yc h ia tr y, 2 0 , 5 5 2 5 5 9 . Joh ns on , B .R . (1 9 8 0 ) . G e ne ra l oc c urre nc e o f s tre s s fu l re ac ti ons to c om m e rc ia l m oti on pic ture s and e le m e nts i n lm s s ubje c tiv e ly id e nti e d a s s tre ss o rs . P s y c h o lo g ic a l R e co rd s, 4 7 , 7 7 5 78 6 . Jos e , P .E ., & B re w e r, W .F. (1 9 8 4 ). D e v e lo pm e nt of story lik in g : C ha rac ter id e nti c atio n, s us pe ns e , and outc om e re s olu tio n. D e v e lo p m e n tal P s yc h o lo g y, 2 0 , 9 1 1 9 2 4 . K oriat, A ., M e l km an, R, A v e ril l, J.R., & L az arus , R.S . (1 9 7 2 ). T he s e l f-c ontrol of e m otional re ac tio ns to a s tre s s ful lm . Jo u r n a l o f P e r s o n a lity, 4 0 , 6 0 1 6 1 9 . L a Fran c e , M ., & B an aj i , M . (1 9 9 2 ). T ow ard a re c on s i de ratio n o f the g e nde r- e m oti on re latio ns hip . In M .S . C la rk (E d.) , R e v ie w o f p e r s o n a li ty a n d s o c ia l p s yc h o l o g y (V ol. 1 4 , pp. 1 7 8 2 0 1 ) . Lo ndon: S ag e . L a z a ru s , R .S . (1 9 6 4 ). A l a borato ry a pp roa c h to th e dy na m i c s of ps y c ho lo g i c a l s tre s s . Am e r ic a n P s yc h o lo g i s t, 1 9 , 4 0 0 4 1 1 . L az arus , R.S . (1 9 9 1 ). E m o tio n a n d a d a p tatio n . O x f ord: O x ford U niv e rs it y P re s s . L az arus , R.S . (1 9 9 3 ). Fro m ps y c hol og ic al s tre s s to the e m o tions : A his tory of c hang in g outlooks . An n u a l R ev ie w o f P s yc h o l o g y, 4 4 , 1 2 1 . L az arus , R.S ., & A lf e rt , E . (1 9 6 4 ). S hort-c irc uit in g of thre at by e x pe rim e ntall y alte rin g c og nitiv e apprais al . Jo u r n a l o f Ab n o r m a l a n d So c ia l P s yc h o lo g y , 6 9 , 1 9 5 2 0 5 . L az arus , R.S ., O pton, E .M ., N om i kos , M .S ., & Ra nk in , N .O . (1 9 6 5 ). T he p rin c ip le of s hortc irc uitin g of thre at: Fu rt he r e v i de nc e . Jo u r n a l o f P e r s o n a li ty, 3 3 , 6 2 2 6 3 5 . M a thai, J. (1 9 8 3 ). A n a c ute anx ie ty s tate in a n a dole s c e nt pre c ip it ate d by v ie w in g a horro r m ov i e . Jo u r n a l o f Ad o le s c e n c e , 6 , 1 9 7 2 0 0 . M undo rf , N ., W e av e r, J., & Z il lm ann, D . (1 9 8 9 ) . E f fe c ts of g e n de r role s and s e lf -pe rc e ptions on affe c tiv e re ac tio ns to horro r lm s . Se x R o le s , 2 0 , 6 5 5 6 7 3 . N om ik os , M .S ., O pton , E ., Jr., A v e ri ll , J.R ., & L a z a ru s , R .S . (1 9 6 8 ). S urpris e v e rs us s us pe ns e in the produc tio n of s tre s s re ac tio n. Jo u r n a l o f P e r s o n a l ity a n d So c ia l Ps y c h o lo g y, 8 , 2 0 4 2 0 8 . N orde n, M . ( 1 9 8 0 ). To w ard a the ory o f audie nc e re s pons e to s uspe ns e ful lm s . J o u r n a l o f the U n iv e r s it y F il m As s o c ia tio n , XXXII, 1 & 2 , 7 1 7 7 . O rto ny , A ., C l o re , G .L ., & C o l l i n s , A . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . Th e c o g n i ti v e s tr u c tu r e o f e m o ti o n s . C am brid g e : C am brid g e U niv e rs it y P re s s . P il la rd, R.C ., A tkins on, K.W ., & Fis he r, S . (1 9 6 7 ). T he e ffe c t of di ffe re nt pre parat io ns on lm -in duc e d anx i e ty . P s yc h o l o g i c a l R ec o r d , 1 7 , 3 5 4 1 . S apols ky , B .S ., & Z ill m a nn, D . (1 9 7 8 ). E x pe rie nc e and e m pathy : affe c tiv e re ac tions to w itne s s in g c hil dbirt h. J o u r n a l o f So c ia l P s yc h o lo g y , 1 0 5 , 1 3 1 1 4 4 . S parks , G.G. (1 9 9 1 ). T he re latio ns hip be tw e e n dis tre s s and de lig ht in m al e s and fe m a le s re ac tio ns to frig hten in g l m s. Hu m a n C o m m u n ic a tio n R e s e a r c h , 1 7 , 6 2 5 6 3 7 .

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T am borin i, R. (1 9 9 1 ). Re s pons e s to horro r: D e te rm in ants of e x po sure and appe al. In J. B ry ant & D . Z ill m a nn (E ds .) , R e s p o n d in g to the s c r e e n : r e c e p tio n a n d r e a c tio n p r o c e s se s (pp. 3 0 5 3 2 8 ). H ill s dale , N J: L aw re nc e E rlb aum A s s oc ia tes Inc . T a m borin i, R., & M e ttle r, J. (1 9 9 0 , O c tobe r) . E m o tio n a l r e a c tio n s to lm : A m o d e l o f e m p a thi c p r o c e s s e s . P ape r pre s e nte d at the annual c onfe re nc e of the S pe e c h C om m unic a tio n A ss oc iatio n, C hi c ag o, IL . T a m borin i , R., S ti ff, J., & H e i de l , C . (1 9 9 0 ). Re ac tin g to g ra phi c horro r: A m od e l of e m pathy and e m otio nal be hav io r. C o m m u n ic a tio n R es e a r c h , 1 7 , 6 1 6 6 4 0 . T ruff aut, F. (1 9 8 3 ). Hi tch c o c k. Ne w Y ork: S im on & S c hus te r. W i ls on , B .J., & W e i s s , A .J . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . T he e f fe c ts of s i bli ng c ov i e w in g o n p re s c hool e rs re ac tio ns to a s us pe ns e ful m ov ie s c e ne . C o m m u n ic a tio n R es e a r c h , 2 0 , 2 1 4 2 4 8 . Z i ll m ann, D . (1 9 8 0 ). A na tom y of s us pe nse . In P .H . T anne ba um (E d.) , Th e e n ter tain m e n t fun c tio n s o f tele v is io n (pp. 1 3 3 1 6 3 ). H il ls dale , N J: L aw re nc e E rl baum A s s oc i ate s Inc .
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Z i ll m ann, D . (1 9 8 3 ). T rans fe r of e x c i tation i n e m otio nal be hav io r. In J.T . C ac io ppo & R.E . P e tty (E ds .) , So c ia l p s yc h o p h ys io lo g y : A s o u r c e b o o k (pp. 2 1 5 2 4 0 ). N e w Y ork: G uilf ord P re s s . Z i llm ann, D . (1 9 9 1 a). T he lo g ic of s us pe ns e an d m y s te ry . In J. B ry ant & D . Zi ll m a nn (E ds .) , R e s p o n d in g to th e s c r e e n : R e c e p tio n a n d r e a c ti o n p r o c e s s e s (pp. 2 8 1 3 0 4 ). H il ls d ale , N J: L aw re nc e E rl baum A ss oc iate s Inc . Z i ll m ann, D. (1 9 9 1 b). E m pathy : af fe c t from be a rin g w it ne s s to the e m o tions of othe rs. In J. B ry ant & D . Z il lm ann (E ds .) , R e s p o n d i n g to th e s c r e e n : R ec e p tio n a n d r e a c tio n p ro c e s s e s (pp. 1 3 5 1 6 7 ). H il ls dale , N J: L aw re nc e E rl baum A s s oc ia tes Inc . Z i ll m ann, D. (1 9 9 4 ). M ec hanis m s o f e m otion al i nv ol v e m e nt w i th dram a. P o e tic s , 2 3 , 3 3 5 1 . Z i ll m ann, D . ( 1 9 9 6 a). T he psy c holo g y o f s us pe ns e i n dram a tic e x pos it io n. In P . V orde re r, H .J. W ulf f, & M . Frie d ric hs e n (E ds .) , Su s p e n s e : C o n c e p tua li za tio n s , th e o r e tic a l a n a ly se s a n d e m p ir ic a l e xp lo r a tio n s (pp. 1 9 9 2 3 1 ). M ahw ah , N J: L a w re n c e E rl baum A ss oc iate s Inc . Z i ll m ann, D . (1 9 9 6 b). S e que ntia l de p e nde nc ie s i n e m otiona l e x pe rie nc e and be hav io r. In R.D . K av anaug h, B . Z im m e rbe rg , & S . Fe in (E ds .) , E m o tio n : In ter d is c ip l in a r y p e r s p e c tiv e s (pp. 2 4 3 2 7 2 ). M ahw ah, N J: L aw re nc e E rl baum A s s oc i ate s Inc .