Brain Imaging Technology In the past, the study of the brain was limited to people suffering from head

injuries and the effects of accidental damage. It was only possible to study the brain during autopsy. In order to develop an understanding of the brain, researchers were dependent on observation. At one time, clinical cases were the primary method available to study the workings of the brain. The use of clinical observation (case studies) has its drawbacks, however, particularly in terms of lack of control. Laboratory research with animals eventually resulted in important discoveries about causes and possible treatments of neurological and mental disorders. Today, researchers have available a variety of techniques for identifying the function of various brain structures, beyond the use of clinical cases. Since the invention and development of brain imaging technologies it has become possible: to directly study living brains in action as various tasks are performed

to correlate specific areas of brain damage with specific changes in a persons personality or cognitive abilities understand the relationships between specific areas of the brain and their function locate the areas of the brain that are affected by neurological disorders develop new strategies to treat brain disorders to study the effects of drugs on the brain. Researchers can now determine how quickly drugs reach receptors in the brain and how long they stay there.

Some empirical research Restak (1984) used the PET to show how the front of the brain and the part that produces movement became active when a person was asked to move the right hand. When a person is asked to think about moving the hand, only the front part is active and not the part involved in actual movement. Martin &Brust (1985) showed that participants asked to listen to and recall a story had activity in the part of the brain responsible for processing auditory information, and also in the hippocampus when asked to recall (hippocampus involved in memory). It is possible to use MRI in a functional capacity, i.e. to examine the brains function as well as its structure (fMRI). MRI and fMRI are non-invasive methods (compared to PET where radioactive substances are introduced in the body). MRI and fMRI have been used to investigate similar functions to those investigated using PET: language, attention, vision, memory etc. PET and MRI can be used in combination. They have the advantage of good spatial resolution (i.e. images and

structures are seen very precisely) but the disadvantage of a poor temporal resolution (i.e. it is difficult to match the psychological and neural event in time precisely). The reason for this is that in PET and MRI, a number of scans are taken and these are averaged in time.

Technique Electro Encephalo Graph EEG Year: 1920 Hans Berger

Method It is the oldest of the modern brain imaging techniques and uses electrodes placed on the scalp to detect and measure patterns of electrical activity coming from the brain. These electrodes pick up electric signals naturally produced by the brain and send them to an instrument that detect and measure small electric currents. There have been many recent developments regarding EEG's ability to read brain activity data from the entire head simultaneously. Using scale electrodes, EEG can determine the relative strengths and positions of electrical activity in different brain regions by measuring electrical activity on the outside of the brain. Prior to taking an EEG, the person must avoid caffeine intake and prescription drugs that affect the nervous system. A series of cup-like electrodes are attached to the patients scalp, either with a special conducting paste or with extremely fine needles. A very low electrical current is sent through the electrodes and the baseline brain energy is recorded. Patients are then exposed to a variety of external stimuliincluding bright or flashing light, noise or certain drugsor are asked to open and close the eyes, or to change breathing patterns.

Use An EEG can show what state a person is in (asleep, awake, anaesthetized) because the characteristic patterns of current differ for each of these states. One important use of EEGs has been to show how long it takes the brain to process various stimuli. EEG used to be a first-line method for the diagnosis of tumors, stroke and other focal brain disorders. EEGs assist physicians in the diagnosis of a variety of neurological problems from headaches and dizziness to seizure disorders, strokes, and degenerative brain disease. The EEG is also used to look for organic causes of psychiatric symptoms, disabilities in children and to determine irreversible brain death.

Advantages Identify synchronized patterns of activity associated with perceptual recognition. Hardware costs are significantly lower. EEG sensors can be deployed into a wider variety of environments. EEG enables higher temporal resolution, on the order of milliseconds, rather than seconds. EEG is relatively tolerant of subject movement. EEG is silent, which allows for better study of the responses to auditory stimuli. EEG does not cause claustrophobia. This painless, risk-free test can be performed in a doctors office or at a hospital or testing facility. Advantages

Disadvantages It is essentially passive, allowing researchers to observe the brain, but not directly alter brain activity. Need to apply electrodes to the scalp (which may bother people with severe tactile sensitivities, e.g., some individuals with autism) Most important is its poor spatial resolution. The meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and skull "smear" the EEG signal, obscuring its intracranial source. It does not show us the structures and anatomy of the brain or really tell us which specific regions of the brain do what. EEG records timing of activity very precisely but resolution is poor and does not directly record interior brain activity. As a result, researchers often use EEG images of brain electrical activity in combination with MRI scans to better pinpoint the location of the activity in the brain.

Technique

Method

Use

Disadvantages

Computerized Axial Tomography CAT Scan Year: 1971 Godfrey Hounsfield

This imaging technique uses a series of x-rays taken from different positions around the skull. A computer then reconstructs "slices" through the brain. Resolution is greatly improved using this technique, but these images, by themselves, do not tell us anything about brain function. Modern CT scanning exposes the subject to about as much radiation as a single x-ray and can provide reasonably good images in a matter of minutes. Scanning takes about 20 minutes (a CT of the brain or head may take slightly longer) and is usually done at an imaging center or hospital on an outpatient basis. The patient lies on a special table that slides into a narrow chamber. A sound system built into the chamber allows the patient to communicate with the physician. As the patient lies still, x-rays are passed through the body at various angles and are detected by a computerized scanner. The data is processed and displayed as cross-sectional images, or slices, of the internal structure of the body or organ. A light sedative may be given to patients who are unable to lie still and pillows may be used to support and stabilize the head and body.

Typically used for viewing brain injuries.

quickly

Widely Available. Low to moderate cost.

Like said before it shows physical structures, but reveals nothing about the activity within the brain. Uses ionizing radiation, however the dosage is low. Poor constrast between gray matter and white matter. Possible allergic response contrast material (IV Iodine) to

CT scans are primarily used for evaluating swelling from tissue damage in the brain. CAT scans of the brain can detect brain damage, certain brain tumors and cysts, strokes, calcified tissues and also highlight local changes in cerebral blood flow (a measure of brain activity) as the subjects perform a task.

Can visualize structures.

bony

It serves as an alternative to an MRI in the case of pacemaker, neural stimulator or claustrophobia.

Although very little radiation is used in CT, pregnant women should avoid the test because of potential harm to the fetus from ionizing radiation. Persons who are claustrophobic may have difficulty taking this imaging test. Occasionally a contrast dye is injected into the bloodstream to highlight the different tissues in the brain. Patients may feel a warm or cool sensation as the dye circulates through the bloodstream or they may experience a slight metallic taste.

In the final analysis, the harder a material is, the whiter it will appear on the scan. Many neurological disorders share certain characteristics and a CT scan can aid in proper diagnosis by differentiating the area of the brain affected by the disorder.

Technique Positron Emission

Method Allows us to observe blood flow or metabolism in any

Use This test also can be used to

Advantages Provides an image of

Disadvantages Expensive to use.

Tomography PET Scan Year: 1975 Michael E. Phelps

part of the brain. In a PET scan, the subject is injected with a very small quantity of radioactive glucose. The PET then scans the absorption of the radioactivity from outside the scalp. The patient lies still while overhead sensors detect gamma rays in the bodys tissues. A computer processes the information and displays it on a video monitor or on film. Brain cells use glucose as fuel, and PET works on the theory that if brain cells are more active, they will consume more of the radioactive glucose, and if less active, they will consume less of it. A computer uses the absorption data to show the levels of activity as a color-coded brain map, with one color (usually red) indicating more active brain areas, and another color (usually blue) indicating the less active areas. PET scans were superior in terms of resolution and speed of completion (as little as 30 seconds) when they first came online. Scans are conducted in a hospital or at a testing facility, on an outpatient basis

diagnose a variety of neurological conditions, including memory disorders, tumors, and seizure disorders. PET scans of the brain are used to detect or highlight tumors and diseased tissue, measure cellular and/or tissue metabolism, show blood flow. Before fMRI technology came online, PET scanning was the preferred method of brain imaging, and it still continues to make large contributions to neuroscience

brain activity. PET is painless and relatively risk-free. PET has yielded much useful information about localization of function. The improved resolution permitted better judgments to be made as to the area of the brain activated by a particular task. Length of test time depends on the part of the body to be scanned. Necessity to ingest radioactive material and the fact that the images of the brain obtained using PET are relatively low in resolution. Activity patterns must be averaged over intervals of about 30 seconds, because the absorption of glucose occurs gradually. The biggest drawback of PET scanning is that because the radioactivity decays rapidly, it is limited to monitoring short tasks. Measures emissions radioactively labeled from

Technique Magnetic Resonance

Method MRI uses the detection of radio frequency signals produced by displaced radio waves in a magnetic field.

Use Depending on how it is used, magnetic resonance can be

Advantages Unlike PET, MRI does not require the subject

Disadvantages Expensive to use.

Imaging It provides an anatomical view of the brain. MRI Year: 1977 Raymond Damian When a particular site in the brain experiences increased activity, there is a sudden rush of blood flow to that area. This blood replenishes the oxygen used by the hard-working brain cells. By tracking variations in blood flow, functional MRI can detect active sites in the brain in real time. A large cylindrical magnet creates a magnetic field around the head of the patient through which radio waves are sent. It is strong enough to temporarily realign water molecules in the tissues. When the magnetic field is imposed, each point in space has a unique radio frequency at which the signal is received and transmitted. Sensors read the frequencies and a computer uses the information to construct an image. The detection mechanisms are so precise that changes in structures over time can be detected. Using MRI, scientists can create images of both surface and subsurface structures with a high degree of anatomical detail. MRI scans can produce cross sectional images in any direction from top to bottom, side to side, or front to back. Method

used to study structures or activity patterns. Neurological uses include the diagnosis of brain and spinal cord tumors, eye disease, inflammation, infection, and vascular irregularities that may lead to stroke. MRI can also detect and monitor degenerative disorders such as multiple sclerosis and can document brain injury from trauma.

to be injected with a tracer substance. MRI can produce very clear and detailed pictures of brain structures. Safe, painless, invasive. non-

Cannot be used in patients with metallic devices, like pacemakers. Cannot be used with uncooperative patients because the patient must lie still. Cannot be used with patients who are claustrophobic. However, new MRI systems with a more open design are now available. The problem with MRI technology was that while it provides a detailed assessment of the physical appearance of the brain, it fails to provide information about how well the brain is working at the time of imaging. The patient will be asked to remove jewelry, eyeglasses, removable dental work, or other items that might interfere with the magnetic imaging. The patient should wear a sweat shirt and sweat pants or other clothing free of metal eyelets or buckles.

No special preparation (except the removal of all metal objects) is required from the patient. Patients can eat or drink anything before the procedure.

Technique

Use

Advantages

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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging fMRI Year: 1990s

Functional MRI detects changes in blood flow to particular areas of the brain. It provides both an anatomical and a functional view of the brain. FMRI has taken the place of PET scanning as the king of brain imaging because fMRI can produce images of the brain every second, and scientists can determine with great precision when brain regions become active and for how long. Also, fMRI has such high resolution that it can distinguish structures less than a millimeter apart. This allows scientists to know exactly which areas of the brain are being activated. PET, however, retains the significant advantage of being able to identify which brain receptors are being activated by neurotransmitters, abused drugs, and potential treatment compounds. Drawbacks of fMRI are few but substantial at this point. First, it takes quite a bit of time to perform the procedure and the patient needs to be completely still for often more than twenty minutes at a time.

Second, and more importantly, interpretations of fMRI results are still vague. It is difficult to determine if the subject was thinking about something that caused certain parts of the brain to activate, if the scanner picked up real data or noise, and so on.

For these and other reasons, fMRI technology has begun to be combined with EEG technology.