CHAP 18 Neural Control and Coordination

Q:-1 How is regulation and coordination achieved in

animals?
 In living organisms functions of the organs/organ systems
must be coordinated to maintain homeostasis.
 Two or more organs, through the coordination process
interact and complement the functions of one another. i.e.
during physical exercises rate of respiration, heart beat and
circulation of blood increase. When physical exercise is
stopped, the activities of all organs gradually return to their
normal conditions.
 Thus, during physical exercises, functions of muscles, lungs,
heart, blood vessels, kidney and other organs are
coordinated.
 In man, all physiological activities are jointly coordinated
and regulated by nervous system and endocrine system.
 Structural and functional unit of nervous system is Neuron.
 The neural system provides an organised network for a
quick coordination. The endocrine system provides
chemical integration through hormones.
 Q:-2 Give information of evolution of neural system in
animals.
 The neural system of all animals is composed of highly
specialised cells - neurons.
 It can receive, transmit and detect various kinds of stimuli.
 In lower invertebrates, the neural organisation is very
simple.
e.g. Hydra - Network of neurons. Insects - neural system is
better organized, where brain is present along with a
number of ganglia and neural tissues.
 The vertebrates have a more developed neural system. In
higher organisms neural system performs three basic
functions.
(i) It receives sensory impulses from the external and
internal environment and sends it to the brain.
(ii) Brain analyses the type of stimuli.
(iii) Responses, according to stimuli are transported in the
form of nerve impulses to various body parts or cells.

Q:-3 Describe briefly types of neural system in human.

 The human neural system is divided into two parts.

(i) The Central Neural System (CNS)

(ii) The Peripheral Neural System (PNS)
 The CNS includes the brain and the spinal cord. It is the site
of information processing and control.
 The PNS comprises of all the nerves of the body associated
with the CNS (brain and spinal cord)
 The nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types.
(a) Afferent Nerve Fibres (b) Efferent Nerve Fibres
 The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses from
tissues/organs → CNS
 The efferent never fibres transmit the regulatory
impulses → from CNS involuntary organs/tissues.
 The PNS is divided into two subdivisions.
(i) Somatic Neural System (ii) Autonomic Neural System

 The somatic neural system relays impulses from the CNS to

skeletal muscles.
 The autonomic neural system transmits impulses from CNS
involuntary organs and smooth muscles to the body.
 The autonomic neural system is again divided into
Sympathetic Neural System and Parasympathetic Neural
System.
Visceral Nervous:- System is part of peripheral nervous
system which allows travelling conduction nerve impulses
of nerves, ganglions plexuses (nerve network) from central
nervous system to internal organs and from internal organs
to CNS. It is formed of whole complex.
 Q:-4 Describe the structure of neuron with diagram.
 Neurons are functional unit of neural system.
 In microscopic structure of neuron three main parts are
observed.
(1) Cell body
(2) Dendrites
(3) Axon.
(1) Cell body:- Body of neuron is called cyton. Cyton may be
oval, round or stellate shaped. Cytoplasm of neuron is
called Neuroplasm. Big round nucleus is present. In the
centre of the cyton.
 Neuroplasm, consist of cellular organelles, small basophilic
granules (Nissl's granules). Nissl's granules are mostly near
the nucleus.
(2) Dendrites:- Divides, redivides and project out of the
cyton. It also contains Nissl's granules. Dendrites transmit
impulses towards the cell body.
 (3) Axon:- Is a long fibre, the distal end of it is branched.
Each branch terminates into bulb like structure called
Synaptic knob.
Synaptic knob :- It has synaptic vesicles containing
chemicals called Neurotransmitter.

 The axon transmit nerve impulses away from the cyton to a

synapse or to a Neuro- Muscular Junction.
Types of neurons:- Based on the number of axon and
dendrites, the neurons are divided into three types.
 Special for NEET:-

(1) Multipolar:- One axon and two or many dendrites.

e.g. cerebral cortex.
(2) Bipolar:- One axon and one dendrite
e.g. retina of eye.
(3) Unipolar:- Cell body with one axon only
e.g. : present in embryonic stage.
 Two types of axons are present accordingly neuron is
(i) Myelinated neuron (ii) Non- myelinated neuron

(i) Medullated neuron:- The myelinated nerve fibres are

enveloped with Schwann cells which form a myelin sheath
around the axon.
 The gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths are called
nodes of Ranvier.
 Myelinated nerve fibres are found in cranial nerves and
spinal nerves.
(ii) Non-myelinated neuron:- They are enveloped by a
Schwann's cells but myelin layer is not formed around the
axon.
 It is found in somatic neural system and autonomous neural
system.

Q:-5 How is conduction of nerve impulse occur?

 Neurons are excitable cells because their membranes are in
a polarised state.
 Different types of ion channels are present on the neural
membrane. These ion channels are selectively permeable to
different ions.
 When a neuron is not conducting any impulse,
i.e., resting, the axonal membrane is comparatively more
permeable to K+ and nearly impermeable to Na+.
 Similarly, the membrane is impermeable to -vely charged
proteins present in the axoplasm.
 The axoplasm inside the axon contains high concentration
of K+ and -vely charged proteins and low concentration of
Na+.
 In contrast, outside the axon K+ low concentration and high
concentration of Na+ forms a concentration gradient.
 These ionic gradients across the resting membrane are
maintained by transport of 3Na+outwards and 2K+ inside
the cell.
 As a result, the outer surface of the axonal membrane is
+vely charged and its inner surface becomes -vely charged
and therefore it is polarised.
 The electrical potential difference across the resting
membrane is called the resting potential.
 When a stimulus is applied at point A on the polarised
membrane, it becomes freely permeable to Na+, Na+ influx
is followed by the reversal of the polarity,
i.e. outer membrane is -vely charged and inner side is +vely
charged.
 The polarity at the site A is reversed and hence depolarised.
The electrical potential difference across the plasma
membrane at the site A is called action potential which is
infact termed as nerve impulse.
 At sites immediately ahead, the axon membrane has +ve
charge on the outer surface and a-ve charge on its inner
surface. As a result, a current flows on the inner surface
from site A to site B. On the outer surface current flows
from site B to site A to complete the circuit of current flow.
Hence, the polarity at the site is reversed and an action
potential is generated at the site B.
 Thus, impulse (action potential) generated at site A arrives
at site B.
 The sequence is repeated along the length of the axon and
consequently the impulse is conducted.
 The rise in the stimulus induced permeability to Na+ is short
lived. It is quickly followed by the rise in permeability to K.
Within a fraction of a second, K+ diffuses outside and
restores the resting potential of the membrane.
 Q:-6 What is synapse? How many types of synapses are
found? Discuss conduction of nerve impulse through
synapse with diagram.
 A nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another
through junctions called Synapses. Conduction of never
impulses pass through synapse.
 A synapse is formed by the membranes of a pre-synaptic
neuron and a post-synaptic neuron, which may or may not
be separated by a gap called synaptic cleft.
 There are two types of synapses.
(i) Electrical synapses
(ii) Chemical synapses
(i) Electrical Synapses :- The membranes of pre and post-
synaptic neurons are in very close proximity.
 Electrical current can flow directly from one neuron into the
other across these synapses.
 Transmission of an impulse across electrical synapses is very
similar to impulse conduction along a single axon.
 Impulse transmission across an electrical synapse is always
faster than that across a chemical synapse.
 Electrical synapses are rare in our system.
(ii) Chemical Synapses :- The membranes of the pre and
post-synaptic neurons are separated by a fluid filled space
called synaptic cleft.
 The pre synaptic neuron transmit an impulse across the
synaptic cleft to the post synaptic neuron.

 Chemicals called neurotransmitters are involved in the

transmission of impulses at these synapses.
 The axon terminals contain vesicles filled with these
neurotransmitters.
 When an impulse arrives at the axon terminal it stimulates
the movement of the synaptic vesicles towards the
membrane where they fuse with the plasma membrane and
release their neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft.
 The released neurotransmitters bind to their specific
receptors, present on the post- synaptic membrane. This
binding opens ion channels allowing the entry of ions which
can generate a new potential in the post-synaptic neuron.
 The new potential developed may be either excitatory or
inhibitory.
Q:-7 Draw a neat and labelled diagram of human brain.
Mention its various parts and functions.
 The brain is the central information processing organ of our
body and acts as the 'command and control system.
Functions of brain :-
 It controls the voluntary movements, balance of the body,
functioning of vital involuntary organs (e.g., lungs, heart,
kidneys), thermoregulation, hunger and thirst, circadian
(24-hour) rhythms of our body, activities of several
endocrine glands and human behaviour.
 It is also the site for processing of vision, hearing, speech,
memory, intelligence, emotions and thoughts.
 The human brain is well protected by the skull.
 Inside the skull, the brain is covered by cranial meninges.
 It is formed of 3 layers.
(1) Dura mater - outer layer
(2) Arachnoid - middle thin layer
(3) Pia mater - inner layer (which is in contact with brain
tissue)
 The brain can be divided into three major parts.
(a) Forebrain
(b) Midbrain
(c) Hindbrain

Q:-8 Write short note - Forebrain

 The forebrain consists of three main regions.
(i) Cerebrum (ii) Thalamus (iii) Hypothalamus
(i) Cerebrum:- It forms the major part of the human
brain. A deep cleft divides the cerebrum longitudinally
into two halves, which are termed as the left and right
cerebral hemispheres.
 The hemispheres are connected by a tract of nerve fibres
called corpus callosum.
 The layer of cells which covers the cerebral hemisphere is
called cerebral cortex and is thrown into prominent folds
- (Gyri, Sulci and Fissures).
 The cerebral cortex is referred to as the grey matter due
to its greyish appearance. The neuron cell bodies are
concentrated here giving the colour.
 The cerebral cortex contains motor areas, sensory areas
and large regions that are neither clearly sensory nor
motor in function.
 These regions called as the association areas. They are
responsible for complex functions like intersensory
associations, memory and communication.
 Fibres of the tracts are covered with the myelin sheath
which constitute the inner part of cerebral hemisphere.
They give an opaque white appearance to the layer and
hence, is called the white matter.
(ii) Thalamus :- The cerebrum wraps around a structure
called thalamus. It is a major coordinating centre for
sensory and motor signaling.
(iii) Hypothalamus :- It lies at the base of the thalamus. It
contains a number of centres which control body
temperature, urge for eating and drinking.
 Hypothalamus also contains several groups of
neurosecretory cells, which secrete hormones called
Hypothalamic Hormones.
Limbic System:- The inner parts of cerebral hemispheres
and a group of associated deep structures like amygdala,
hippocampus, etc., form a complex structure called the
limbic system.
 It is involved in the regulation of sexual behaviour,
expression of emotional, reaction.
(e.g. excitement, pleasure, rage and fear and motivation.)

Q:-9 Give information regarding location and components

of midbrain.
Location:- The midbrain is located between the thalamus /
hypothalamus of the forebrain and pons of hindbrain.
 A canal called the cerebral aqueduct passes through the
midbrain.
Structure:- The dorsal portion of the midbrain consists
mainly of four round Lobes called corpora quadrigeminal.
Midbrain and hindbrain form the brain stem.

Q:-10 Give information for hindbrain.

 The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla
oblongata.
 Pons:- Consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different
regions of the brain.
Cerebellum:- Has very long convoluted surface in order to
provide the additional space for many more neurons.
 The medulla oblongata contains centres which control
respiration, cardiovascular reflexes and gastric secretions.

MAULIN TRIVEDI
SBZ
VED