NERVOUS SYSTEM

1.
I tructure
i
2.2.
I~~trodi~ctio~i
Objectives
Stri~cturalUnits of the Nervous System
Neuron
Types of Neurons
Properties of Nervous Trssue
,
12.3 Nerve Impulse
Restrng Me~nbrancPotential
Action Potential
The All or None Principle
Conduction of a Nerve Impulse along the Axon

The Synapse
Structure of Synapse
Chernical Synaptic Transmission
Electrical Synaptic Transmission
.5 Organisation of the Nervous System
Nervous System of Cockroach
Retlex Arcs
Human Nervous System
I'eripheral Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Autono~nicNervous System
I p(7 Summary
lf18 Terminal Questions
i I
1 . INTRODUCTION

1
T nk about the following situations:
I Yo11 happen to touch a hot plate accidentally, and you at once withdraw your
hand.
If a child sirdde~ilyhappens to come in front of a running car, the driver
I iiista~ita~ieously applies the brakes. In this situation, in a fraction of second, the
I eyes have seen and the message has gone to tlie brain, and an order has been
sent to tlie leg ~ n ~ ~ s ctol epress
s the brakes.
I
; Y ~ Lare
I playrng a fast game like tennis, which requires a lot of coordination by
I the rnuscles, observation by the eyes and judgement by the brain.
On spraining your ankle the pain in it signals that you should not move the
affected part so that it rnay recover fast.
I
When tlie stomach is empty, you feel hungry and you eat.
)
I
If you have taken too much sugar in your food. its excess in blood signals the
pancreas to secrete the hormone insulin. Insulin then "orders" liver to convert
1 excess blood sugar into insoluble glycogen for storage in liver cells.

I
I n t above examples varying degrees of complex physiological processes are
req red which iiivolve two kinds of coordination. All examples, except the last one,
are nervous coordination (brought about by the sense organs, nerves and brain), but
the st one is that of chemical coordination through chemical messengers called
hor nes. You-will get to know more about hormones and their coordination in
Uiii 4. However, in this and the next unit you will read about nervous system and
 ?
Control Coordination
and Re reduction
sense organs -how they help in coordinating the functions of the body and reactions
to external and internal stimuli.

The nervous system evolved as a means to sense and respond accurately to changing
conditions inside and outside the body. It keeps us aware of our surroundings through
perception of sounds, sight odours, tastes and touch by the sense organs. At the same
time, it also receives inputs from the interior world of the body through the receptors
that monitor features such as temperature, blood pressure, oxygen supply, levels of
hormones, etc. It also coordinates simple and complex behaviour by interpreting the
inputs received about the changing internal and external conditions, interpreting those
changes and responding by giving appropriate instructions to the muscles and glands
of the body. We can say that the main functions of the nervous system are as follows :

It keeps us informed about the outside world through the sense organs.
It enables us to remember, to think, to reason and to react.
It controls and harmonises all voluntary muscular activities, e.g. running or
even in holding this book in your hand while you are reading it.
It r.egulates involuntary activities such as breathing, or the beating of the heart
without our thinking about them.

In this unit, we will start with a discussion of the structure and function of the nerve
cells. A nerve cell or neuron is the basic unit of communication in the nervous system.
We will see how messages are generated and transmitted along these nerve cells to
specific organs and cells in response to a stimulus. The language in which these
messages are sent is the same regardless of the stimulus and the interpretation of the
stimulus lies in the brain that directs an appropriate response. Therefore, we will also
discuss the organisation of the nervous system in invertebrates as well as in humans to
show that all nervous systems have one underlying mechanism the nerve impulse, and
three basic elements. These are-a) central processing unit comprising the brain and the
spinal cord b) nerves that bring information to the brain and c) nerves that take
commands from the brain.

1 Objectives

I After completing this unit, you will be able to:

describe the structure of a neuron,

explain the transmission of nerve impulse along a neuron and across the
synapse,
describe the nervous system of cockroach and explain how it is different from
vertebrate nervous system,
describe the organisation of human nervous system,
describe the structure of brain and spinal cord,
explain reflex action and its importance,
expl,ain the functions and significance of the autonomic nervous system

12.2 STRUCTURAL UNITS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Living matter has the intrinsic capability to respond to changes in the environmental
(physical chemical and biological) factors. Single cell organisms such as Amoeba and
Paramecium also respond to the environment, interact with it and generate appropriate
responses. With the advent of rnulticellularity and increase in the size of animals,
arose the need for rapid communication and conduction within the organism. To fulfill
this need some of the cells - neurons or nerve cells becdme specialised to receive
environmental information, to conduct it through the organism and to generate an
appropriate response. These cells became organised in what is known as the nervous
system.
 erve cells, carry information in the form of electrical and chemical signals. The Nervous System
ervous tissue also has another kind of cells called the neuroglia or glial cells. They
present in large numbers and occupy practically all the space between the nerve
Glial cells do not transmit electrical or chemical signals but they provide
olic and structural support for the neurons. Most neurons are so specialised for
rrying messages that they cannot maintain themselves without the support of gliak
Ils. On average, each neuron in the human brain requires the assistance of ten glial
Ils. Some glial cells provide scaffolding for the neurons during development.
hers, called oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells wrap them selves around the nerve
I exte~~sions making a myelin sheath, which is significant in the transmission of
nals along the nerve cell extensions. We will learn more about them a little later.
rent types of glial cells are given in Table 12.1.

/I Table 12.1: Glial cell types and their functions

~$UROGLIA FUNCTIONS
I I

Surround the axons of all peripheral nerve fibres,

form the myelin sheaths.

odendrocytes 47 Form myelin sheaths around axons of nerve

q \ fibres of the central nervous system, form the
white matter.

Cover capillaries of the brain to form the blood brain

barrier and help to regulate the passage of molecules
from the blood to the brain.

Line the ventricles and o r brain cavities and

central canal of the spinal cord.

Phagocytic amoeboid cells in the central

nervous system that remove degenerate and
foreign material from the brain.

I
12.21~:. Neuron
neuroris occur in a great variety of size and morphological forms, they have
of structure representing certain common characteristics. Nerve cells have
kinds of organelles as the other cells. Some may be as long as the
nervous system has about 100 billion neurons. Majority of the
brain. Fully formed neurons never djvide and remain in
In general, a neuron consists of main cell body and
from it (Fig. 12.1).The cell body (=cyton o r soma)
be up to 13.5 mm in diameter and irregular, spherical,
Like a typical cell it consists of cytoplasm,
neurofibrils, neurotubules and Nissl's
play a role in the transmission

are in fact, microtubules, which maintain the shape of the neuron.

(also called Nissl's bodies) are irregular masses of rough endoplasmic
attached and free ribosomes and polysomes. Nissl's
proteins for the cell. Neurons have a large number of
mitochondria suggesting that they are active users of energy. Aging neurons contain a
pigment lipofuscin made up of residual bodies derived from lysosomes.

The processes of neurons are called neurites. These are of two types: dendrons and an
axon.

(a) Dendrons :These are usually short, tapering and much branched processes. The
branches are known as dendrites.They may be one to several. They are the input
zones,that is, they receive infor~nationfrom other neurons and carry it towards
the cell body. They are called afferent processes or receiving processes.
(b) Axon: Axon is a single usually very long process of uniform thickness. The
part of cyton from where the axon arises is called axon hillock. This is the
most sensitive part of the neuron. Most axons end in a group of branches, the
terminal arborisations or axon terminals. When terminal arborisations of
the axon meet tlie dendrites of another neuron they form a special contact
known as synapse through the synaptic knobs or end plates. The synaptic
knobs contain mitochondria and secretory vesicles, which store chemical
substances, called neurotransmitters. At the synapse the fibers, however, do
not meet, their cell membranes remain separated by a microscopic gap of
about 200 8\ known as synaptic cleft (Fig. 12.6). Each neuron receives
illformation through its dendrites and passes it on to the next neuron throi~gh
synapse. Each axon may also possess side branches called collateral fibers,
which are usually much finer than the main axon process.
The axon conducts messages away from the cell body, therefore, is the output zone.It
is called an efferent process. Axons may be of two types (i) myelinated and (ii)
unmyelinated. In the case of rnyelinated axons, there is covering or sheath of complex
lipoproteins known as myelin which provides insulation for the axon. This is
secreted by Schwann cells. Where the sheath of one Schwann cell meets the next, tlie
axon is unprotected. These gaps are known as nodes of Ranvier. The myelin sheath
and the nodes of Ranvier help accelerate the speed of conduction of messages by a
mechanism which we will discuss a little later.

Fig. 12.1: Generalised diagram of a vertebrate neuron showing the myelin sheath around the axon.

The axon and the dendrites are also known as nerve fibres. Nerve fibres terminate in
three ways : (i) The axon of one neuron may end near the dendrites of the next neuron
forming a synapse. (ii) The axon of a neuron may terminate on either a muscle fibre or
a gland cell. When it ends on a muscle fibre, it forms a minute pad called the motor
end plate at the neuromotor junction: (iii) Many nerve fibres, rnay divide into fine
branches kiiown as the sensory nerve endings for example in the skin.
Bundles of axons form the nerves while the cell bodies of the neurons are foi~ndeither
within tlie central nervous system or form clusters k~lownas ganglia (singular:
ganglion)
 Nervous System

( , l l r neuroos are classitied on tlie basis of their structure and function.

)(b)
I( )
On the basis of the structure, the neurons are of four types (Fig. 12.2).
Nonpolar o r unpolarised neurons : Each neuron bears several branched
processes. There is no functional difference between dendrites and axon.
These neurons are rare in vertebrates but occur in cnidarians such as Hydra.
ii) Unipolar neurons : Each neuron has a single process. The process divides
into two furtlier processes. One of these processes represents the axon and the
other is functionally a dendrite but its structure is like that of an axon. This
neuron is described as unipolar. Most sensory neurons are unipolar. They
occur in the dorsal root ganglia of spinal nerves and granule cells of olfactory
bulbs (part of olfactory lobes of the brain). True unipolar neurons with an
axon and no dendrite are found in invertebrates and vertebrate embryos
( 1 2.2 a).
Bipolar neurons : These neurons have only two processes, an axon at one
end and a dendrite at another end (12.2 b). Bipolar neurons are found in the
retina of eyes, olfactory epithelium and cochlear and vestibular ganglia
(cochlea and vestibule are the parts of membranous labyrinth of internal ear).
Multipolar neurons :These neurons have several dendrites and an axon.
Motor neurons and interneuron are multipolar (12.2~).They are the most
common type of neurons.

44 ltipolar neurons occur in the grey matter of the brain and spinal cord.

(I(i On the basis of function, neurons are of three types.

Sensory (receptor o r afferent) neurons :They connect sense organs with
the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). They bring sensory
messages from sense organs to the central nervous system.
Motor (effector o r efferent) neurons : They connect the central nervous
system to the effectors (muscles and glands). They carry motor messages
tiom the central nervous system todie effectors.
Interneurons o r relay neurons (connector, relaying o r adjustor neurons) :
They are present in the central nervous system and occur between the sensory
and motor neurons for distant transmission of messages. They are neither
sensory nor motor.

Figure 12.2: Various types of neurons. (a) unipolar neuron, (b) bipolar-
sensory neuron and (c) multipolar-interneuron.
 ACTIVITY 1

Ask your students to draw the three kinds of neuron and label their parts. Now they
should be able to indicate those parts that are common to all three kinds.

12.2.3 Properties of Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue has two outstanding properties : excitability and conductivity.

I. Excitability : It is the ability of the membranes of the nerve cells and fibers to
enter into an active state called the state of excitation in response to a stimulus.
Excitation arises at the receptors on account of various stimuli such as light,
temperature, chemical, electrical or pressure, which constantly act, on the
organisms.

2. Conductivity : The excitation does not remain at the site of its origin. It is
transmitted along nerve fibers. The transmission of excitation in a partic~llar
direction is called conductivity.

Now that we know some of the basic properties of nerve cells let us examine how the
membrane of the nerve cell acquires this property.

12.3 NERVE IMPULSE

Neurons generate and conduct nerve impulses which, are basic to all neurological
function from sensory perception to behavioral experiences. It is therefore ilnportant
that your students understand clearly how impulses are generated and conducted in the
nerve cells before you explain to them how the nervous system as a whole is
organised. For instance, how can pricking your finger with a needle generate an
electr~calchange that tells your brain to experience pain? The source of electricity is
certainly not in the needle. It lies in the nerve cell membrane. Recall the properties of
a cell membrane, it allows some molecules and ions to move freely, while is
impermeable to others. This happens because cell membranes have specific proteins
that serve as channels that allow the passage of specific molecules and ions i l l and out
of the cell. Some of these channels have gates, which open and close in response to
external stimuli, some allow passive n~oveme~lt of ions, while some other membrane
proteins actively pump ions and molecules across the membrane using ATP. As a
resu It, the inside of the cell has different concentrations of certain ions and molecules
from the outside. The resulting concentration gradient across the membrane is a
source of potential energy. If this concentration gradient also results in a net electrical
charge on one side of the membrane relative to the other side then an electrical
gradient also results. This electrical gradient is the electrical p o t e n t i a k voltage
across the membrane.

12.3.1 Resting Membrane Potential

Let us come back to the living cell. Charged ions are present in the cell's cytoplasm
and in the fluid surrounding the cell. The inside of the cell has 25 times more K ions
than Na and CI ions, while the interstitial fluid outside the cell has approximately 10
times more Na ions than inside the cell (Fig. 12.3).

done.
 Nervous System
Cell
membrane

Sodium-Potass~um
Outside

~ a +
+ll
+
-
-
Inside

Pump
Outsrde
the ccll
Acltve trarlsport
t

Plasma mernbmne

Diffusic

tlic cell

Om
ATP

g. 12.3: Ion distribution inside and outside a neuron. An active sodium-potassium ion pump
clrives N;I+ outside keeping its concentration low inside the cell. Even though potassium
ions leak outside, the concentration is more inside.

ie inflow and outflow of sodium and potassium ions across the membrane is
portant in understanding tlie nerve impulse. When at rest, the nerve cell is
lectively permeable to K ions. Therefore, some K ions leak out of the cell through
e open potassiu~iiion channels. At tliis time the sodium and chloride ion channels
e closed and the per~iieabilityof sodium through the membrane is almost zero. As K
is move out they leave a net negative charge inside but the outside of the membrane
comes more positively charged and eventually repel the movement of K ions
side tlie cell. An equilibrium is reached where the positive charge exactly balances
concentration gradient tliat drives the K ions out so that further movement of
assiu~nions towards the outside is stopped. A potential difference between the
de and tlie outside of the membrane exists. Since the neuron in this condition is not
ducting any impulse, tliis potential difference is known as the resting membrane
ential. Tlie value of this resting potential is different for different types of neurons,
in mammalian motor neuron it is approximately -70 millivolts. Such a membrane
has a different charge on its inside and its outside is polarised.

.3.2 Action Potential

action potential is a sudden reversal of the resting potential of a neuron wherein

membrane potential shoots up to +401nv. Let us follow tlie events that take place
an action potential. When a neuron is stimulated mechanically,
or cl~emicallya disturbance is felt at the point of stimulation
excitatory state. Tlie gated sodium cliannels in that region
allow the sodium ions to enter the cell along their
tlie negativity inside that part of the membrane. A
more and more voltage sensitive sodiu~iigates
channels remain open, some 7000 sodium ions
the axon membrane is reversed. The membrane
Contra Zoordination in that region becomes negatively charged on the outside and positively charged
and Re oduction (+40mv) on the inside. The membrane now with this reversed polarity is said to be
depolarised. Within about 2 milliseconds the sodium gates close. Shortly after the
sodium gates close the voltage gated potassium ion channels open, allowing the flow
of K' ions out of the neuron along their electrochemical gradient. So many K' ions
leave the axon that its electrical charge changes from +40mv to -80mv causing
hyperpolarisation that is, becoming somewhat more negative than when the neuron
was at rest (because the K' channels stay open a bit too long). This immediate return
to a negative charge causes a temporary redistribution of ions with more sodium
inside and more potassium outside. The original redistribution of N~+/K'takes place
more slowly. Once the action potential is over the sodium- potassium pump begins to
work and extra ~ a is+pumped out and extra K+ is pumped back into the cell. The
N ~ + / Kpump
+ takes out 3 Na' for every 2K+that it brings in and the resting potential is
restored. Thus the N~'/K' pump helps to maintain the potential difference across the
membrane. The restoration of the original resting potential is known as
repolarisation. Figure 12.4 shows the sequence of events graphically.

12.3.3 The All or None Principle

Any stimulus strong enough to initiate an action potential is known as threshold

stimulus. Below the threshold level the stimulus fails to generate an impulse. Once
generated, the magnitude or the amplitude of the stimulus does not influence the size
of the action. Even if we double or triple the stimulus, the action potential remains the
same,: A stimulated neuron either fails to transmit the impulse at all or it transmits an
impuise at a constant strength along the length of the nerve fibre. This is the all or
none response. A stimulus that is weaker than a threshold stimulus is called
subthreshold stimulus. It is incapable of generating an action potential. But if
another stimulus, or a series of subthreshold stimuli is applied in quick succession to
the neuron, the cumulative effect might be enough to cause an action potential. This is
called summation (you will learn in the next unit how rod cells work together in
groups to produce a threshold stimulus on a single relay neuron, thereby helping us to
see in dim light).

12.3.4 Conduction of a Nerve Impulse along the Axon

An action potential occurs at one point and travels in the form of a series of action
potentials along the entire length of the axon. Let us see how that happens. Imagine
that an action potential is halfway along the axon, at that point the inside of the
membrane is slightly more positive than the outside of the membrane. Everywhere
else the cytosol is more negative and the Na and K ions will be attracted away from
the point of the action potential on either side. Even a slight movement of positive
ions will mean that the cytosol on either side of the action potential will become
slightly depolarised. Ahead of the action potential this will cause full depolarisation
and the action potential will move forwards. The action potential, therefore, is not
really conducted but regenerated along the axon length. The last action potential has
the same amplitude as the first. Thus it is said to be conducted without decrement.

12
 N e r v o u s System

Just a small

channels

A slightly depolarisation Depolarisation opens the

triggers opening of the potassium gates
sodium gates

-- -.- b
Time

. 12.4 : Recording o f an action potential i n an axon. (a) Mrmbrane a t rest i n the trigger zone (zone receiving threshold
stimulus). The sodium channels are closed. (b) Changes i n ion permeability. Sodium channels open and Nac
ions enter the cell till the membrane polarity is reversed (depolarisation o f membrane). ( c) On repolarisation .
the sodium gates close and potassium gates open and K + follows its gradient. Na+lKt pump starts to work
restoring the original polarity o f the membrane, action potential moves on to the adjacent region o f the
membrane away from the stimulation. (d) Refractory period i n which the membrane cannot depolarize, as the
Naf channels are closed and only time w i l l open them. (e) Membrane back at rest.
 You would wonder why the action potential depolarises the portioii of the membrane to
its right and not to its left. This is because the membrane, which has been depolarised
earlier, needs to recover before it can be stimulated again (Fig. 12.5). Tliis short period is
known as refractory period. This has two important consequences: firstly it explains
why nerve impulses can travel in only one direction along tlie neuron, secondly because
the refractory period lasts up to 10 milliseconds, it limits the frequency with which
neurons can transmit impulses. In some human neurons the refractory period lasts only
0.001-0.002 seconds. This means that the neuron can transmit 500-1000 impulses per
second.

1 Action potential here

- -
V+ + -
Depolarisation here

- - - - -

Net here a=
still in
refractory B
period

V Depolarisation here

4-J
Refractory B
Period

Fig.12.5: Why the action potential moves along the axon towards the axon terminal (action
potential moves in the direction shown by the arrow).

The above account of conduction described so far applies to unmyelinated neurons.

Each action pote~itialtriggers the next one, in a self propagating wave. This self
propagating wave of depolarisation and repolarisatio~iis known as newe impulse
However, the myelin sheath of many axons in the vertebrate body insulates them
except at tlie nodes of Ranvier. When an impulse travels along a myelinated neuron,
depolarisatio~ioccurs only at the nodes. It leaps over tlie myelin sheath fro111one node
of Ranvier to tlie next (Fig. 12.6). This process, the saltatory conduction, gets its
name from the Latin root word saltare, meaning to jump.

Saltatory conduction accounts for tlie greater speed of an impulse travelling along a
myelinated neuron than along a non-myelinated one. Less energy is required for
saltatory conduction than for conduction along a nonmyelinated neuron because
sliialler amounts of ATP are used to operate the sodium pump. Two other factors
affect the speed of conduction of the nerve impulse along tlie axon: temperature and
thickness of the axon. The speed of conductio~iis higher at higher temperature. The
thicker the axon, the faster the impulse travels. This is seen in liiost invertebrates and
especially in the giant squid, which have a few axons as thick as 1 rn~nin diameter.
Vertebrates however, do not have such thick axons. Therefore, tlie myelin sheaths
greatly speed up the conductio~iof n e r d impulses.
 Nervous System

g.12.6: Contluction o f action potential from the axon hillock to the axon terminal in (a)
unmyelinated nerve fibre, (b) myelinated nerve fibre.

. What are the two reasons for the Resting potential of an excitable cell?
2. How does refractory period determine the direction of the nerve impulse?
Acetylcholine was the
first neurotransmitter
12.4 THE SYNAPSE to be isolated and
obtained by
synapse is an area of functional contact between one neuron and another for the OttoLoewi in 1920
from the endings of
of transferring information. Synapses are usually found between the fine parasympathetic
of the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another. neurons of the vagus
across a synapse in two ways, either electrically or chemically. nerve in frog heart.
is however, more common and takes place through chemicals Neurons releasing
acetylcholine arc
described as
cholinergic neurons
and those releasing
noradrenaline are
ical (generalised synapse) consists of a bulbous expansion of an axon terminal described as
a pre-synaptic knob lying close to the membrane of a dendrite of another adrenergic neurons.
I. The cytoplasm of the sy~iapticknob contains mitochondria, smooth
lasmic reticulum, ~nicrofilamentsand numerous synaptic vesicles each about
in diameter and enclosed by a membrane. Each vesicle contains the
ransmitter responsible for the trans~nissio~l of the nerve impulse across the
e. The membrane of the synaptic knob nearest the synapse is thickened and
he res synaptic membrane. The membrane of tlie dendrite is also thickened
a1led the postsynaptic, membrane. These membranes do not touch but are
d by a gap, the synaptic cleft (Fig. 12.7). The postsynaptic membrane
rillrnerous channels and pores and large protein molecules, which act as
sites for tlle neurotransmitter. Binding of the ~ieurotransmittermolecules with
tor molecules causes changes in the membrane permeability. Chemical
may either excite or inhibit, depending on the particular neurotrarlsmitter and
f receptor on the post-synaptic membrane. Activation of excitatory receptors
s tlie membrane generating an excitatory response, while excitation of the
itory receptors hyperpolarises tlie membrane resulting in the inhibition of the
of signals.
Biologists have identified at least 20 different neurotransmitters, and there may be
many more. Some of the neurotransmitters are given in Table 12.2.
Table12.2: Some neurotransmitters and their effect
- - ~ - - - --
Neurotransmitter Effect
Acetylcholine Stimulates contraction of skeletal muscles; contributes to memory.
Norepinephrine Increases alertness and attention; prepares for muscular activity;
elevates moods. -
Dopamine Excites emotions, elevates moods; prevents overactivity of neurons
that cause muscle contraction; deficiency causes Parkinson's
disease.
Glycine Prevents uncontrolled muscle contraction
Serotonin Calms emotions; promotes sleep and dreaming.
Endorphin Promotes euphoria; reduces pain.
Gamma-aminobutyric Prevents uncontrolled muscle contraction; alleviates anxiety.
acid (GABA)

Neurotransmitters may not always work as they should and things can go wrong if
there is interference with the transmission or if other chemicals occupy the synaptic
cleft (see box12.1).

12.4.2 Chemical Synaptic Transmission

Understanding how chemical synapses work is important not only in understanding
how the brain works, but also in understanding medical and social problems as well.
All medication given for the functioning of the brain essentially works on the synapse.
For example, sleeping pills, tranquilizers, antipsychotic drugs and narcotics such as
codeine, heroin, and cocaine all act by mimicking or interfering with the production,
release or action of some neurotransmitter (see Box 12.1).
Let us have a closer look at the mechanism of synaptic transmission:
(i) When an impulse arrives at a presynaptic knob, it depolarises the presynaptic
membrane, opening voltage gated calcium channels. Since there are more
calcium ions outside the cell than inside they enter from the synaptic cleft into
the cytoplasm of the presynaptic knob.
(ii) The calcium ions cause the movement of the synaptic vesicles to the surface
of the knob. The synaptic vesicles are fused with the presynaptic membrane
and get ruptured (exocytosis) to discharge their contents (neurotransmitter)
into the synaptic cleft (Fig.12.7).
(iii) The neurotransmitter diffuses through the synaptic cleft and binds with
protein receptor molecules on the postsynaptic membrane. This binding action
changes the membrane potential of the postsynaptic membrane, opening
channels in the membrane and allowing sodium ions to enter the cell. These
channels are therefore, chemically gated and not voltage dependent This
causes tlie depolarisation and generation of action potential in the post-
synaptic meinbrane. Thus the iinpulse is transferred to the next neuron. -
(iv) The synaptic vesicles then merge with the membrane of tlie synaptic knob and
new vesicles filled with neurotransmitter are made (Fig. 12.7).
(v) Having produced a change in the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane,
the neurotransmitter is either destroyed by enzymes in the synaptic cleft or
reabsorbed by the presynaptic cleft. In the case of cholinergic synapses,
acetylcholine is hydrolysed by an enzyme acetylcholinesterase which is
present in high concentration at the synapse.

The products of the hydrolysis are acetate and choline which are reabsorbed into the
synaptic knob where they are resynthesised into acetylcholine, using energy from
ATP.
 Newous System

The description about

the transfer of
information from one
neuron to another seems
rather simple, but one
must recall that most
axons are highly
branched and may
connect to many neurons
at one time, which may in
ig.12.7 : Transmission across nerve endings. A synaptic knob enlarged with a synaptic cleft as i t turn be connected to
might seem under high resolution. Sequence of events as the neurotransmitters move several neurons the
across the cleft to bind to the receptors in the postsynaptic membrane is given in the combinations are
figure. indefinite! Some
specialised neurons may
be so densely covered
arlier in this section we had said that a postsynaptic cell's response depends on the with synaptic knobs that
and concentration of neurotransmitter in the cleft, the kinds of receptors on the a single neuron may have
cell and the number and responsiveness of the gated channels. Such more than 10,000
whether the neurotransmitter will have an excitatory effect or an synaptic connections. We
can appreciate the
complexity of the
nervous system when we
,et us see how the postsynaptic potential (PSP) works by using the example of a well- couple this with the
cnown neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which has been studied at the neuromuscular number of neurons
synapses: The interaction of tlie acetylcholine- receptor results in the opening of both present, which may be
Va and K cliannels allowing tlie flow of both these ions simultaneously. The more than 10". These
connections are not
~depolarisationeffect predominates and the membrane potential increases to attain a random but highly
value of -251iiV, which is nearer zero but the characteristic over shoot of an action specific and have been
potential is not achieved. Therefore, no action potential is generated but only further well studied.
depolarisation, wliicli may in turn produce an action potential a little further away
.%omtlie site of the synapse. The magnitude of the PSP is dependent on the amount of
:lie neurotransmitter released. \

'Vow if a second impulse arrives at thee synapse before the first one dies down, it adds
~p to the first one evoking a stronger action potential at the action hillock of the post
:synaptic cell. This is known as temporal summation. The PSP also exhibits spatial
summation. If a new PSP arrives at an adjacent synapse on the same postsynaptic cell
.:hen it would be added to tlie existing PSP. These two types of summation form the
asi is for co~iiputation in each neuron, hence in the entire nervous system.
11 the earlier section we had said tliat a synapse can be excitatory or inhibitory. An
2xcitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is the result of neurotransmitter- receptor
nteraction tliat opens up channels for ~ a as+well as K+(as in the case of
acetylclioline).If however tlie neurotransmitter-receptor interaction opens up channels
'or alone then some K+ will leave tlie cell increasing the membrane potential i.e.,
causing hyperpolarisation. This increase in potential is inhibitory postsynaptic
3otential (IPSP). If tlie neurotransmitter- receptor interaction causes the opening of
21- channels even then an IPSP results as the inside of tlie membrane becomes more
iegative in relation to the outside. Therefore, with synaptic integration competing
!jignals tliat reach tlie input zone at tlie same time are summed. Two or more signals
iirriving at tlie sanie time may be suppressed, reduced or reinforced or sent onward to
other cells in the body.
 SAQ 2
What w o ~ ~ happen
ld if the neurotransmitter were not removed from the synaptic cleft'?

Box.12.1: Neurotransmitters, Drugs and Synapses

I 1
Many mental illnesses develop due to the imbalances between neurotransmitters and their
receptors in the brain and most of our understanding of the role of synapses and
neurotransmitters is from the study of drugs that rnimic their effect 01. bind to their receptors.
Mind altering drugs i~ifluencethe brain by modifying synapses.

The tranquillizer Valium mimics tlie neurotransmitter GABA.

Prozac that keeps Inore of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the synapse can
alleviate depression.
Parkinson's disease can be controlled by L-dopa, a chemical that the neurons can
convert to dopamine.
The arrow poison curare causes paralysis by blocking acetylcholine receptors.
Strychnine another poison makes neurons more excitable by inhibiting the effect of
glycine in some inhibitory synapses. This makes the postsynaptic cell get constant
excitatory inputs and the muscles go into spasm.
Nerve gas inhibits acetylcholinesterase and thus prevents coherent muscle control.
Heroin an addictive drug, binds with the same receptors on the neurons on the pain
and pleasure centers in the brain that bind to natural pain killers -endorphins. The
body is not able to distinguish between heroin and endorphins and ultimately stops
producing the neurotransmitter, and the person must have heroin to feel good.
Cocaine another mind altering drug binds with a carrier that nor~nallypicks up
dopalnine and returns it to the synaptic buttons for recycling. Thus cocaine holds
dopamine in tlie synapse and overstimulates neurons in the pleasure centers.
Addiction develops as less dopamine is produced by the n~uronsand the addict
nceds the cocaine to feel good.

12.4.3 Electrical Synaptic Transmission

'fhe mode of electrical transmission involves the direct spread of ionic current from
tlie pre synaptic ~ n e ~ n b r a to
n ethe postsy~iapticmembrane. Tlie presynaptic and tlie
- post synaptic cells are joined by gap junctions that are channels through which ions
and small ~noleculescan pass freely from one cell to another. An electrical synapse
allows an action potential to continue to travel to the postsynaptic cell in tlie same
manner and at the same speed as it traveled in the presynaptic axon. All electrical
synapses are excitatory, that is, the action potential in the presynaptic cell s t i m ~ ~ l a t e s
the action potential in the post-synaptic cell. Electrical synapses occur in a variety of
invertebrate and vertebrate neural circuits, where fast co~tductionbetween cells is
important and subtle ~nodificationsof signals is not important. Tlie vertebrate Ilea9
has such electrical synapses where synchronous contraction of the heart muscles is
required.
-

SAQ 3

Make a table comparing chemical synapse and electrical synapse with regards to their
structure, type and mode of communication, time taken for transmission and degree of
amplification of the original signal.

12.5 ORGANISATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The simple all or none activity of the lieuroll can hardly provide the adaptability
needed for the constant change faced by the organism in its internal and external
environments. Information from the external environment is integrated with signals
 within the organism and transmitted to effectors to bring out a coordinated Nervous System
Tlii~seach neuron forms a unit in a communication circuit.

mplest organis~nsthat have a nervous system are cnidarians. Their nervous

stem co~isistsof a diffuse network of neurons that are distributed throughout the
dy wall. Sucli a simple and primitive nervous system is termed as nerve net
2.8a). The cnidarian's nerve net merely detects food or danger and causes its
les to retract and its body to contract.

-e complex animals need to posses and integrate larger amounts of information.

ir need for information processing is [net by cluster of neurons called ganglia. The
st anilnals to have a bilateral nervous system are tlie flatworms. A flatworm has
r like nervous system with two parallel nerve cords that run longitudinally
tlie body and have many side branches (Pig. 12.8 b). 111 tlie head region of the
11 are two ganglia forming the si~uplestpossible brain providing integration of
infomiation. Further cephalisation and evolution of paired sensory structures
ed nerves led to the formation of the central newous system (CNS) where b
ons among neurons evaluate incoming information and decide how the body
espond and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of all the
tissue outside tlie central nervous system connecting it with the rest of the
Fig.12.8: (a) Nerve net
in Hydra. (11) nervous
2.1 0 shows the organisation of the nervous system i n cockroach an system in flatworm
rate. The basic plan has a bilobed brain, two longitudinal ventral nerve cords
t still recognisable and many large ganglia and better developed sense organs.
i~ghinsects show complex behaviour they are never the less reflex bound

plan of the vertebrate nervous system sliows highest degree of cephalisation

sophisticated sense organs. In vertebrates, the central newous system lies
he body and co~lsistsof the brain and spinal cord, where most of the nerve
i~!idand which is the site of most of the information processing, storage
11from the sensors to the CNS and from the CNS to the
sent via the neurons that extend or reside outside the brain and spinal cord.
the peripheral nervous system. The PNS connects to the CNS tI1roi1gli

for students to understand the difference between the axons of a single

A nerve is a bundle of axo~is(Fig.12.9) and it
about Inally different things simultaneously. Some axons in tlie
from the CNS while other axons may be carrying

nervous tissue which for~nstlie brain and spinal cord is

white matter. The grey matter looks grey in fresh
of neurons, tlieir dendrites and proxinial erids of their
the grey matter are non-myelinated. The wliite
and co~lsistspredominantly of ~nyelirlatednerve
are present i ~ : both grey and white matter.

f cell bodies of neurons in the CNS are known as nuclei, while aggregations
bodies of neurons may also be found outside the central nervous syste~n.
are called ganglia.
 Connective tisue

Bundles of newe fibers

Fig. 12.9 : A nerve contains the axons of many nerve cells forming bundles, which are
surrounded by connective tissue

12.5.1 Nervous System of Cockroach

The nervous system of cockroach consists of the central nervous system, peripheral
nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system.

Central nervous system : It consists of the brain or supra-oesophageal ganglion,

and the nerve cord. The supra-oesophageal ganglion or cerebral ganglion is a bilobed
structure situated in the head in front of oesophagus, almost between the bases of the
antennae. It is formed by the fusion of three pairs of ganglia. It represents the brain
and is concerned chiefly with sensory function. From tlie supra-oesophageal ganglia
arise two cirum-oesophageal connectives which encircle round the oesophagus and
meet below it with the sub-oesophageal ganglion. The sub-oesophageal ganglion is
also situated in the head and formed by the fusion of 3 pairs of ganglia. 7'hus, the
supra-oesophageal ganglion, cirurn-oesophageal connectives and sub-oesophageal
ganglion together constitute the nerve ring round the oesophagus in the head capsule.
The sub-oesophageal ganglion is the principal motor center and controls the
niovements of muscles. mouth parts, wings and legs.

From the sub-oesophageal ganglion arises a double nerve cord which travels through
the thorax and abdomen below the alimentary canal on the ventral side up to the
posterior end of the body. The nerve-cord has three large ganglia in the thorax, one
each for pro, meso-and metathoracic segments, therefore, they are called prothoracic,
rnesothoracic and metathoracic ganglia. Further tlie nerve cord has six ganglia in the
abdomen which lie in the lst, 2nd, 3rd, 4tl1, 5th, and 7th segments. Each ganglion of
the nerve cord is formed by the fusion of two ganglia except the ganglion in the 7th
segment. The ganglion in the 7th abdominal segment is the largest of all the
abdominal ganglia and probably formed by the fusion of 3 pairs of ganglia. Both the
nerve cords run parallel and very close to each other but unlike earthworm they are
not enclosed in a colnlnon sheath. But they are fused only at the place of the presence
of ganglion and they are solid.

Peripheral Nervous System : The nerves originating from the nerve ring and
ventral nerve cord to innervate different parts of the body constitute the peripheral
nervous system. Three pairs of nerves originate from the supra-oesophageal ganglion-
optic, antennary and labro-frontal nerves. The first two innervate the eyes and
antennae but the third one divides into labral nerve supplying to the labrum and the
frontal nerve which nins forwards to join the sympathetic nervous system. Similarly,
three pairs of nerves originate from the sub-oesophageal ganglion-mandibular,
~naxillaryand labial to innervate the mandibles, maxillae and labium respectively.
 pairs of nerves arise fro111each thoracic gangl~onto supply the different parts Nervous System
own segment. A pair of nerves, however, from metathoracic ganglion
the 1st abdominal segment. The nerves originating from first five
ganglia innervate the 2nd. 3rd, 4th. 5th, and 6th abdominal segments. From
ganglion three pairs of nerves are give11off to supply the 7t11, 8th
It also gives a branch to innervate tlie cercus and other associated
ructures.

he sympathetic nervous system : It consists of some ganglia and their connectives.

includes thc frontal, occipital, visceral arid proventricular ganglia. The nerves
111these ganglia are connected with the supra-oesophageal ganglion. The frontal
nglion i q a small ganglion located on the oesophagus i n front ofthe supra-
sophageal ganglion. A pair of frontal connectives from this ga~iglionconnects it
1 the supra-oesophageal ganglion. A median recurrent nerve passes backward from
nd connects the occipital ganglion behind tlie supra~~oesphageal ganglion. Tliree
ves originate f1.0111
the occipital ganglion, the two lateral nerves connect it with tlie

:
para cmdiiaca and corpora allata which are endocreine glands, while tlie median
ve run bacl\\vards over the oesophagus and joins the visceral ganglion situated on
t crop. From the visceral ganglion, a pair of nerves supplies the alimentary canal.
I e of them is connected with the proventricular ganglion sit~~ated on the gizzard.

frontal gnngitor~ - ,
recurrent norvo----A;
:urn-oesophageal
cornmissure
sub-oosophagwat
g a n Q 3 ; - ganglion
oesophageal
nerve % I " pr3lhomclc ganglion

'-mesothorac~cganglion

ganglion
proventricular
ganglion $ -4-
A -.\\firs,' abdorninai
1. ganglion
- y
-A__
_" -\aentrnl norve cotd

Fig.12 10 : 4rthropod nervous system with large ganglia and well developed sense
organs.

12.41 Reflex Arcs

I
Lyin r between the sensory inputs and motor responses of the central nervous system
are 11' Illy complex neural networks. These are responsible for the reflexive and
high fi~nctionsof the nervous system. Let us now examine the simplest neural
path , y in vertebrates-the monosynaptic reflex arc. This reflex pathway is made up
of a isory neuron that enters the spinal cord through its upper or dorsal root, and a
nioto leiiron that leaves the spinal cord through its lower or ventral root (Fig.13.11).
With I the spinal cord there is only one synapse therefore this reflex is known as
mon naptic. Thc ~iiostfarniliar example of this is the stretch reflex in vertebrates.
Control, G'oortlination When yo11visit the doctor to have your reflexes checked, he/she will most commo~ily
a ~ ~Reprr)duction
tl test them by striking below the knees with a rubber mallet. Your response wotrld be a
rapid involuntary extension of tlie leg that is the knee jerk reflex. The mallet blow on
the tendon causes a quick stretch of tlie riiuscle attached to the tendon. l l i e muscle
spindle within the muscle are stretch sensors and activate sensory neurons. The
numbers of action potentials per second carried by the sensory neuron signal the
degree of stretch. The cell body of this sensory nellron lies in tlie dorsal root ganglion
of the spinal cord and tlie axon of the sensory neuron extends into the core of tlie
spinal cord where it synapses with the motor neurons for the Same ~nusclefrom whicli
the sensory newon originated. Each motor neuron sends impulses along its axon,
which leaves tlie spinal cord through tlie ventral root. The axon of tlie motor neuron
synapses on the muscle causing it to contract and reach the original position.

Even tlioi~ghthe stretch reflex is involuntary you are aware of being struck on the
knee. This awareness means tliat information also reaches tlie brain. I n addition to the
~no~iosynaptic reflex circuit tlie sensory neuron branches to synapse with other
interneurons in the spinal cord. These interneurons send axotls LIPtlie spinal tracts to
the brain. Motor neurons from the brain descend down the spinal tracts and form
synapse with the same motor neurons tliat are involved in the reflex circuit. However,
most spinal reflexes are polysynaptic and involve many interneurons.

Fig.12.I 1: Monosynaptic and polysynaptic spinal reflexes. The stretch reflex is monosynaptic while
the parallel reflex that causes the contraction of the muscle involves interneuron and
is polysynaptic.

1 SAQ 4
Draw a simple spinal reflex arc and ask your students to explain with the help of that
diagram, what happens when one touches a hot plate by accident.

i 12.6 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

In the previous sections we discussed the cellular properties of neurons in simple
circuits- how neurons generate and conduct nerve impulses, how neurons
co~nmunicatewith each other as synapses and how information is integrated at the
synapses. In this section we will see how the human nervous system functions in
 rms of these cellulal- mechanisms. As in other vertebrates, the hurna11nervous Nervous System
t e ~ nis divided into two main parts (Fig. 12.12), the central liervous system and
iplleral nervous system. Tlie central nervous system, the site of information
rocessing is composed of tlie brain arid spinal cord. Tlie peripheral nervous system is
infoimatio~lhighway composed of spirial and cranial nerves that carry messages to
~dfrom the brain and spinal cord. Tlie nerves of tlie peripheral nervous system
~ntainsensory patliways that tra~is~nit information to tlie central nervous system.
hese are al'fel-ent patliways and we are consciously aware of much of this
for~iiationlilte hearing, vision, temperature, touch, pain, taste and positio~iof limbs
.. but we may not be aware of other sensory infor~iiationnecessary for tlie proper
nctioning of tlie body like, blood pressure, deep body temperature, blood oxygen
els. 'The motor or efferent patliways tliat transmit information away from the
itral nervous system to tlie ~nusclesand glands can be divided into voluntary
tliways tliat carry messages to tlie muscles for conscious movements and
oluntary pathways that control physiological fi~nct;ons.Fignrel2.12b shows tlie
erne of'information flow in tlie nervous system.

12: (:I) 0rga1iis;ition of the human nervous system. (b) Information flow in the nervous
hystcln.

1001, at the peripheral nervous system and spinal cord as tlie two
as mqjor pathways of information conduction.

12.61 Peripheral Nervous System

ans tlie I'NS includes 3 1 pairs of spilial nerves that make connection with the
and 12 pairs of cranial nerves that connect directly witli the brain.
+st o f cranial nerves

I Olli~ctcryNel-vc arises in
[he olthctor! epithelium of
CFREBRAI. HEM1SPk4ERE
\ O L F A C T O I ~LCBE /
OPTIC
CHIASMA
/ FONS L'AtlGLll
MFDllLLA OBLONGATA
/

~ l l cnasa cliamher
I I Optic Ncrvc nriscs i n t l ~ c
retina ot'thc: eyc
I l l OCCL I~~1110tor Ncrve
arises ti-om thc lloor of the
mitlbrai i
IV Tn)c ~ l c a Ncrvc
r
o~.isi~l:ltssli'onl the floor of
the mid wain
V Trigeminal Nurvc largest
cra~~iitl 11c1.v~tli\,ides inlo
ol~~hnlrnic. mi~sillaryand

ol,longnla
VII I:ncri;~lNcrvc
V l l l ,2~1tlit01.> Ncrve Comes
l i - o l ~tl-e inner car
IX (;lossol7har\~nge;II Nerve
originates li'om the side of
rnetiullo (mircd nerve)
X Vng.1~Ncrvc originate
li-om t1.e sick ol'lncdulla
SENSORY NERVE -

Fig.12.13 : Origin and distribution o f human cranial nerves

i
21riscs i o m the ventral side
oS111c 11lI:1.
I
These nerves arc fi~rtlierclassified according to their fi~nctions.PNS may fitrtlier be
divided into a somatic nervous system and an autonomic nervous system. The
somatic nervous systeni consists of:

(i) sensory neurons that convey information from somatic and special sensory
receptors mainly in the head, body wall, and limbs to the CNS,
(ii) motor neurons from the CNS that convey impulses to the skeletal ini~sclcsonly.
As the motor responses are consciously controlled this part of the PNS is
voluntary

l'he autonomic nervous system consists of:

(i) sensory neurons that bring information from autonomic sensory receptors
located i l l the viscera, to the CNS,
(ii) motor neurons from CNS that conduct impulses to smooth mi~scle,cardiac
muscles, glands and adipose tissue. As these motor responses are not under
conscious control this part pf the PNS is involuntary.

The lnotor part of the autonomic nervous system is fi~rtherdividcd into synipatl~etic
and parasympathetic divisions. With few exceptions the muscles and glands are
innervated by both and ~ ~ s i ~ a l l two
~ t l idivisions
e work in opposition to each other. that
is, neurons from one division excite the organ and neurons from the other inhibit it.
For example, sy~npathcticneurons accelerate the heart rate while neurons from the
parasympathetic division decrease the heart rate. Figure 12.14 describes the various
actions of the sympathetic atid parasympathetic divisions.
 -- P a w -
Nervous System

12.14: Action of 111ajorautonomic nerves leading from the CNS to the organs of the body
@$.

!!+a5
nstruct a table to compare the components and organisatio~iof the somatic and
nervous system.

II .6.2 Spinal Cord

is a long bundle of nerve fibres that runs from tlie brain to tlie tail end
bidirectional infor~natio~i
flow between tlie brain and the rest
organs of the body. In tlie spinal cord tlie grey matter consists of the cell
of the spinal neurons and the white matter consists of the myelinated axons that
tlie imp~~lses LIP and down tlie spinal cord. In the center of the spinal cord is a
filled with cerebrospinal fluid, this canal is continuous with the fluid
or ve~itriclesin the brain (Fig12.15). The cerebrospinal fluid is filtered
by specialised structures in the ventricles and acts as a shock absorber,
 cushioning the brain and spinal cord. In addition this fluid brings in nutrients,
hormones and white blood cells to the brain.

Apart from this cushion the brain and spinal cord are covered by a triple layered
membrane -the meninges, the outer layer is called dura mater. Surrounding the brain
the dura lnater is made up of two layers, one adhering to the bony case of the cranium
and the other that lies near the brain. Surrounding the spinal cord the dura mater is
single layered. In between the bones of the vertebrae and the spinal cord is a space
filled with a layer of fat, connective tissue and blood vessels called the epidural space,
Another space exists between the middle layer (arachnoid layer) and the inner layer
(piamater) cerebrospinal fluid circulates in this space.

Spinal nerves leave, the cord at regular intervals. Each spinal nerve has two roots the
dorsal and ventral roots that connect to the grey area of the spinal cord. Each spinal
nerve carries both afferent and efferent information. Afferent messages from the sense
organs enter the spiilal cord via the dorsal root and efferent commands leave the spinal
cord via the ventral root. Information entering the dorsal root can be sent to the brain
or land is sent to the interneurons that are present i n the grey matter of the spinal cord.
Interneurons synapse with motor neurons in the ventral horn as well as with other
spinal neurons to amplify the response or elicit more colnplex inotor responses. It also
integrates a great deal of information from the PNS and respond to it by giving n~otor
commands The conversion of sensory to inotor inforlnation by the spinal cord without
the participation of the brain forms the spinal reflex. (We discussed the simple spinal
reflex in the previous section). Figure 12.15 shows how the spinal cord processes '
information.

cord to brain

i Fig.12.15: How the spinal cord responds to a stimulus

Reflex action

Reflex action is an automatic response to nerve stimulation which results in the

activity of some organ without the intervention of will. Very little if any integration
and certainly no thinking is involved during a reflex activity. If the reflex action is
controlled by the spinal cord it is called spinal reflex action and if it is controlled by
the brain it.is known as cerebral reflex action. For a reflex action five things are
normally essential : (i) receptor, (ii) sensory nerve fibres, (iii) a part of the central
nervous system, (iv) motor nerve fibres and (v) effector organ such as lnuscles and
glands. The sensory nerve fibres bring sensory impulses from the receptor organ to the
central nervous system. The motor nerve fibres relay the motor impulses from the
central nervous system to the effector organs. Thus an impulse travels a path during
rr+l/laction. Tiis path you would recall is called reflex arc (sub section 125.2). Nervous System
Son examples of reflex action are:
ing of eyes wlien strong light is flashed across them.
lidrawal of limbs when they are touched by hot things.
ing of moutli on seeing favourite food.
ing of moutli on hearing loud sound.
idrawal of limbs in a decapitated frog (whose head has been cut) wlien dipped
r touched with an acid.
ig, riding a bicycle, knitting, etc. YOLIcould ask your students to list a few

nany examples of reflex actions which take: place without our being aware
r example, discharge of bile from the gall bladder while the food passes
ening of tlie bile duct, peristalsis of tlie alimentary canal, beating of heart,

ies of an organism call be broadly divided into (i) unconditioned

itioned reflexes.

ntlitionecl reflexes are inborn reflexes and are transmitted through heredity.
are also called inborn or inherited reflexes, e.g., Breast feeding and swallowing
born babies and blinking of eye are the examples of unconditioned reflexes.

reflexes are acquired reflexes during tlie life time of an individual. They
an individual entity and are, therefore, not constant, viz., they may

are responsible for them.

Human Brain

man CNS develops from the liollow neural tube that runs the length of the
on tlie dorsal side. At the liead elid the tube forms three swellings that become
c divisions of the brain: the hindbrain, midbrain and the forebrain. The rest of
-al tube becomes the spinal cord and the cranial and spinal nerves sprout out
neural tube and spread tl~rougliouttlie body. Look at figure 12.16, it shows
lopment of the brain in the embryo. The hindbrain forms tlie medulla, pons
bellum in the adult brain. The nledulla is continuous with the spinal cord ,
n front of medulla, and tlie c e r e b e l l ~ ~is~andorsal outgrowth of the pons. The
and pons co~itaingroups of cells called nuclei that have a function in the
pliysiological fu~ictio~is like breathing, and circulation or basic functions
wing, and vomiting. All infor~i~ation passing between the spinal cord and
st pass tliro~~gli tlie pons and medulla. The cerebellum coordinates the motor
s going to the muscles from the higher brain centers and information from
and ~iiusclescoming up tlie spinal cord. The embryonic midbrain gives rise
tures that process visual and auditory information, also all information
her brain areas and the spinal cord must pass through it. 'The embryonic
gives rise to a central region tlie diencephalon surrounded by the
alon, wliicli consists of the cerebral hemispheres. In humans telencephalon is
t area of tlie brain and the center for sensory perception, learning, memory,
liaviour. Diencephalon is the core area and consists of an upper thalamus
lower liypotlialamus. All sensory inforniation going to the telencephalon is
rougli tlie thalamus, and hypothalamus regulates almost all physiological
functions and biological drives. If you keep this linear neural axis in mind you will
find it easier to explain the relationship between the various structures of the brain. As
all communication between the spinal cord and telencephalon must pass through the
medulla, pons, midbrain and diencephalon, it is also known as the brain stem. You
will also notice that the lower portions of the neural axis control the more primitive
and autonomic functions and the upper portions of the neural axis control the
advanced and more complex functions.

T h e ~ n e u r ambe,vlewedfmmabove,
l
ohom three owcllings that *fl form thc a&dt brain.
L.avrJrkrr
tlbE

J'
SdW The lonbran dcwlops r n t ~
I

Fig.lZ.16 : Development of the human nervous system

The major regions of the brain and their functions in brief are given in Table 12.3.
Almost all mental processes involve interplay of various regions of the brain. Let us
have a look at some of the functional subsystems of the brain.
 Table 12.3 : Organisation of the human brain Nervous System
- - - -

dgion Major Functions

I I

Coordination of motor skills; memory of motor skills.

dulla oblongata Responsible for heart rate, breathing rate, artery diameter
Responsible for alertness; filters incoming information.
Governs facial expressio~iand aspects of sleep.

Controls cranial reflexes; relays impulses; coordinates

posture.
Relay information fioin the nose to the cerebrum.
Generates emotions; sexual responses; governs sleep;
helps towards memory formation; regulates hormonal
and water balance, appetite and body temperature.
relays information fiom sense organs except nose to the
limbic system and cerebral cortex.
Starts appropriate behaviour on receiving afferent
information; suppresses intense emotions.
Carries information between left and right hemispheres
of cerebral cortex .

T
hl reticular system

Tl'a reticular system is a complex network of neuronal fibers consisting of a number

o f c iscrete nuclei distributed through tlie core of the medulla, pons, and midbrain
( F 3.12.17a). Information coming up tlie neural axis passes through tlie reticular
sy~sten~ and passed on to tlie various neurons involved with the control of different
ac ions in tlie body. For example, information from paill receptor is passed on to the
bra in stem nuclei that control se~isitivityto pain and also continues up to the forebrain
wl-ere the brain is able to locate where that information originated; nuclei in the
retl c:ular system are involved in the control of sleep and wakefulness. High level of
ac~ivityin the reticular system maintains the brain in a waking condition and low level
ac(li~ity enables one to sleep.1f tlie brain stem of a person is damaged so that the
ret aular activity is not able to reach the forebrain then tlie person goes into coma.
Day age to tlie neural axis below the level of tlie reticular system causes paralysis but
no loss of normal patterns of sleep and wakefulness occur.

~ i d b i system
e

ic systelii is a ring of neurons located below the cerebral cortex (Fig. 12.17b).
i of tlie limbic system are responsible for generating emotions of rage,
ar and JLIS~. Emotions generated by limbic system are inodulated by the
etex. Some mind altering drugs therefore, affect this portion of the brain.
us a part of the limbic system, is necessary for transfer of short term
long term memory particularly the ones associated with strong emotions
12.2). The cortex and limbic system together, influence the hypothalamus to
glit or flight reaction.
 Box 12.2 : Towards an understanding of memory

One of the most spectacular properties of the human brain is the ability to store information.
We are able to learn, recognise and remember vast amounts of information. Indeed it is only
when our memory fails us that we appreciate how much we take for granted. For most of us
when we forget a name or a face it is an annoying lapse, but for.people that are afflicted by
amnesia or dementia it is a catastrophic disaster.
Although the exact physiological mechanism for formation of a memory or its recall is not
known, researchers do have some idea of that the hippocampus and the limbic system in the
middle portion of the brain have a role to play in the process. However these are not the stores
of memory but it is known that the hippocampus directs parts of experiences to different parts
of the brain through a network of neurons (destruction of hippocampus does not destroy
memory but prevents new learning). Memory seems to be built up in the way the individual
neurons work and interact. Research has shown that communication among brain cells is
altered during learning and that this in turn helps the formation of neural networks that are
required to store information, learn and remember. When the brain learns something it changes
the importance of particular synapses. If a group of neurons work in such a way so as to have a
useful outcome then the importance of those synapses increases, but if the outcome is not
useful, then the importance decreases. An understanding of such neural networks has led to the
develop~nentof computer circuits that work in startlingly brain like fashion.
Research into the molecular mechanisms of memory have revealed the involve~nentof several
enzymes that result in potentiation of synapses, that is , they activate a synapse by prolonging a
neurotransmitter release or make it respond more easily the next time. It has also been found
that a growth related protein GAP-43 found only in neuronal tissue that is required for the
growth of nerve cell processes during early brain development and later during neuronal
regeneration, when over expressed in phosphorylated form, enhances learning and memory in
mammals.
Research into the molecular mechanisms of memory is just an initial glimpse into the
explanations for learning and memory. The more difficult questions are related to what is
thought or those related to consciousness- areas where biologists, psychologists, philosophers
and even mathematicians are pooling their knowledge.

The cerebral Cortex

The cerebral copex is a layer of cell bodies of the interneurons about 4mm thick that
covers the other regions of the brain except the cerebellum. It is highly folded so that
it fits into the slQull.Under the cerebral cortex lie the axons of the cell bodies of the
cortex. These cannect the cell bodies in the cortex to each other and to other neurons
of the brain. A map of the cortex is shown in Figure 12.17~.Regions of the cortex
that receive and process sensory information form the sensory cortex; regions that
send commands to the muscles via motor neurons form the motor cortex; all other
portions of the cortex form the association cortex as they evaluate the information
from the sensory cortex and decide how the body will respond,'and inform the motor
cortex what the response should be.

The sensory cortex as you can see from the figure, is subdivided according to where
the inforination is coming from. The right hemisphere receives information from the
left side of the body and vice versa. Each region within the solnatosensory cortex
receives information from different parts of the body and the motor cortex send
commands to different skeletal muscles of the body after receiving the instr~lctions
from the association cortex. Association cortex within the right hemisphere has
somewhat different functions from the left association cortex depending whether one
is left handed or right handed. In right-handed people the right association cortex
deals with concrete phenomena such as navigation, recognition of faces, music
appreciation art awareness and simple aritlllnetic functions. The left association cortex
deals with symbols and concepts, logic, mathematics, language. However, it has
been found that in left handed persons the functions of the association cortex are more
 Nervous System

.17: ( s )Reticular system controls levels o f alertness and sleep. (b) T h e limbic system that is
responsible for emotions, pleasure and plays a role i n learning and physiological
drives. (c) M a p o f the cerebral cortex showing the sensory, motor and association
cortex regions.

evelily dibided, the electrical properties of nerve cells have allowed i~eurobiologiststo
arid find out which regions of the brain coiltrol which part of the body by
ically stimulating tlie brain and observing the recordings of the electrical activity
t part. As there are no pail1 receptors in the brain, such tests have been done on
patlc!r.ts during neuro-surgery and while tlie patients are awake and alert and both the
filial1 response and the intermediate pathways along a neural response can be studied in
ay to define the pathways of information transfer. In the next unit we will
s the How external information is perceived through the sensory systems of

2 SUMMARY

II
In thi unit you have studied that:

he structural and functional unit of the nervous system is the neuron which
information via their dendrites and tra~is~nitsinformation along their
 axons to the terminal buttons, which pass on the information to the next cell
through a synapse. Neurons are of three kinds-sensory, that receive information;
motor that transmit a command to the muscles and glands; and interneurons that
integrate the incoming information .The information carried by the nerve cells
is in the form of electrical impulses that travel along the axons.

The nervous system functions as a result of the differences i l l ion distribution

across the neuron membrane at rest and after stimulation. Action potential is
generated when the membrane is depolarised in response to a stimulus. It is
transmitted along the axon through the cable properties in unmylinated, and
through saltatory conduction in myelinated fibers.

An action potential in the terminal end of the axon releases neurotrans~nittersin

the synaptic cleft that bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron membrane
triggering a change that may generate another action potential in that cell.

The simplest paths of information flow are the reflex arcs in which a sensory
neuron synapses directly on to a motor neuron to elicit a response to a
stimulation.

The simplest nervous system is the nerve net of radial animals. Vertebrates
show high degree of cephalisation and bilateral symmetry in their nervous
systems.

Human Nervous system is functionally divided into a central nervous systein

composed of the brain and spinal cord, and a peripheral nervous systein made
up of spinal and cranial nerves. Somatic nerves of the PNS deal with the
skeletal muscles and the autonomic system deals with the internal visceral
organs and involuntary functions.

The spinal cord relays information between the brain and the rest of the body
and controls spinal reflexes. The brain is subdivided into the hindbrain,
midbrain and the forebrain. The brain stem is the most primitive region controls
basic involuntary functions needed for survival. The highest integrative centers
are in the forebrain especially in t l ~ ecerebral cortex.

The cerebral cortex, which is the outermost layer of the cerebral hemispheres,
contains sensory motor and association areas. Interactions among these areas
govern conscious behaviour. The cerebral cortex along with the limbic system
governs emotions and formation of memory.

12.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Draw a neuron and show the direction of information flow. Explain why the
flow of information is known as electrochemical impulse.

2. What is the role of voltage gated ~ a ' a n d K" in the production of action
potential?

3. Why does the metabolic rate of a nerve ceIl increase during the period of
intense nervous activity?

4. Why does transmission across a chemical synapse occur in only one

direction?
 Describe how a nervous system is organised in the following flow chart. Nervous System

, 1. Define a reflex action. What are the necessary colnponents of a spinal reflex
arc'?
The nerve gas developed for warfare and organophosphate insecticides are
powerfi~lacctylcholinase inhibitors. How do you think they affect the nervous
system?

A second stimulus applied to the neuron or muscle fiber less than 0.001
second after the first will not trigger another response because of the

In the resting neuron the interior of the cell is charge with

respect to the exterior.

'I'hc o~~tfloiv
of ions quickly restores the normal polarity of the
neuron's membrane.

J
If depolarisation reaches the tlireshold voltage tlien it opens hundreds of
voltage gated channels in the membrane.

4. The axon liillock has a - threshold than any where else on the
nerve cel I.
I

I A t rest there are more

inside the neuron.
ions outside the neuron and more ions

.ti
'I
oose the correct option:

Wliich of the following ions is able to cross through the membrane easily?
i) N a'
i i) K+
iii) CI-
iv) Protein ions
 2. In the nervous system, the most abundant cell type is the
i> motor neuron
ii) sensory neuron
iii) glial cells
iv) association neurons

1 3. Within the nerve cell, information moves from

i) dendrite to cell body to axon.

ii) axon to cell body to dendrite.
iii) cell body to axon to dendrite.
iv) axon to dendrite to cell body.

I 4. The resting potential of a neuron is due mostly to

i) local current spread.

ii) open ~ a channels.
+
iii) synaptic summation.
iv) open K' channels.

5. Which statement accurately describes an action potential?

i Its magnitude increases along the axion.

ii) Its magnitude decreases along the axion.
iii) All action potentials in a single neuron are ofthe same magnitude.
iv) During an action potential the transmembrane pote~itialof a neuron
remains constant.

6. 111the knee jerk reflex

i) spinal interneurons inhibit the motor neuron of the antagonistic

muscle.
ii) the cell body of the muscle stretch receptor is in the dorsal horn of the
spinal cord.
iii) the cell body of the motor neuron is in the dorsal horn of the spinal
cord.
iv) action potentials in the sensory neuron release inhibitory
neurotransmitter onto the motor neurons.
v) the sensory neuron forms a monosynaptic loop with the motor neuron
to the antagonistic muscle.