Define the following terms:

Range of reaction - asserts that our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and
our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall. For
example, if an individual’s genetic makeup predisposes her to high levels of intellectual potential
and she is reared in a rich, stimulating environment, then she will be more likely to achieve her
full potential than if she were raised under conditions of significant deprivation.

Environmental correlation - our genes influence our environment, and our environment
influences the expression of our genes. Not only do our genes and environment interact, as in
range of reaction, but they also influence one another bidirectionally.

Epigenetics - looks beyond the genotype itself and studies how the same genotype can be
expressed in different ways.

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

What are the two basic cell types found in the nervous system and what are their main functions?
Study, figure 3.8 and writes down the names and functions of each the main parts of a typical
neuron
iv. Which is the part of the neuron that receives the signal? - Dendrites
v. Which is the part of the neuron that sends the signal and how does it send
it? -
vi. Why is it important to have a healthy myelin sheath? - The myelin sheath
is crucial for the normal operation of the neurons within the nervous system: the loss of
the insulation it provides can be detrimental to normal function.
vii. What is the synaptic cleft and what happens there? - is a very small space
between two neurons and is an important site where communication between neurons
occurs. Once neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, they travel across it
and bind with corresponding receptors on the dendrite of an adjacent neuron.
viii. What are receptors? - are proteins on the cell surface where
neurotransmitters attach, vary in shape, with different shapes “matching” different
neurotransmitters.

The neuron exists in a fluid environment—it is surrounded by extracellular fluid and contains
intracellular fluid (i.e., cytoplasm). The neuronal membrane keeps these two fluids separate 
What is the difference in charge across the membrane called?
Take a look at figure 3.11 and 
ix. Define what an action potential is - the electrical signal that typically moves
from the cell body down the axon to the axon terminals.
x. Describe each of the actions happening during the action potential. - The
electrical signal moves down the axon with the impulses jumping in a leapfrog fashion
between the Nodes of Ranvier. There is no in between, and there is no turning off an
action potential once it starts.
 xi. Be able to connect them with each other and to name the ions involved   
                          in each action.
     xii. What happens when the action potential arrives at the terminal button? -
When the action potential arrives at the terminal button, the synaptic vesicles release their
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and
bind to receptors on the dendrites of the adjacent neuron, and the process repeats itself in the new
neuron (assuming the signal is sufficiently strong to trigger an action potential). Once the signal
is delivered, excess neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft drift away, are broken down into
inactive fragments, or are reabsorbed in a process known as reuptake.
xiii. What happens to excess neurotransmitters? -

Take a look at table 3.1 and think of the relationship between neurotransmitters and receptors 
Think of ways in the different types of neurotransmitters listed on table 3.1 affect your own
behavior. Write a sentence for each of the neurotransmitters.
What is the difference between agonist and antagonist drugs?
xiv. Give an example of an agonist drug -
xv. Give an example of an antagonist drug -

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

Under the peripheral nervous system, there is a subsystem named the autonomic nervous system
(Figure 3.14). 
i. What are its two main subdivisions? – Central Nervous System & Peripheral
Nervous System
i. Imagine yourself facing an imminent threat, how do the two systems
react to such threat?  - Sympathetic nervous system is activated when we
are faced with stressful or high-arousal situations. The activity of this
system was adaptive for our ancestors, increasing their chances of
survival. Imagine, for example, that one of our early ancestors, out hunting
small game, suddenly disturbs a large bear with her cubs. At that moment,
his body undergoes a series of changes—a direct function of sympathetic
activation—preparing him to face the threat. His pupils dilate, his heart
rate and blood pressure increase, his bladder relaxes, his liver releases
glucose, and adrenaline surges into his bloodstream. While
parasympathetic returns bodily functions to a relaxed state.
ii. What happens after the threat is no longer there? Which system takes
over? How does homeostasis relate to this? – Parasympathetic nervous
system will take over after the threat is no longer there. Homeostasis
maintains biological conditions such as temperature at optimal levels.
iii. What happens to a person’s health when they suffer from chronic
stress? -

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

How does the spinal cord connect the brain to the outside world? - The brain can act. The
spinal cord is like a relay station, but a very smart one. It not only routes messages to and from
the brain, but it also has its own system of automatic processes, called reflexes.

The spinal cord has its own system of automatic processes. What are they called? Give an
example of one. – The spinal cord’s own system of autonomic processes is called reflexes. For
example, when a sensory message meets certain parameters, the spinal cord initiates an
automatic reflex. The signal passes from the sensory nerve to a simple processing center, which
initiates a motor command.

What is neuroplasticity? - refers to how the nervous system can change and adapt.
How can it occur in a person’s life? - can occur in a variety of ways including personal
experiences, developmental processes, or, as in Woodruff's case, in response to some sort of
damage or injury that has occurred. Bob Woodruff, a reporter for ABC, suffered a traumatic
brain injury after a bomb exploded next to the vehicle he was in while covering a news story in
Iraq. As a consequence of these injuries, Woodruff experienced many cognitive deficits
including difficulties with memory and language. However, over time and with the aid of
intensive amounts of cognitive and speech therapy, Woodruff has shown an incredible recovery
of function.

What are the benefits of neuroplasticity? - involve creation of new synapses, pruning of
synapses that are no longer used, changes in glial cells, and even the birth of new neurons.
Because of neuroplasticity, our brains are constantly changing and adapting, and while our
nervous system is most plastic when we are very young, as Woodruff's case suggests, it is still
capable of remarkable changes later in life.

The surface of the brain is called the cerebral cortex and it is folded in what are called gyri
and sulci. Why do you think the cerebral cortex is formed this way?
-These gyri and sulci form important landmarks that allow us to separate the brain into
functional centers.

The brain is divided into two hemispheres each with its own specialization of function
referred to as ______________________ - Lateralization

What are the different functions of the two hemispheres? - The left hemisphere has been
shown to be superior for forming associations in memory, selective attention, and positive
emotions. The right hemisphere, on the other hand, has been shown to be superior in pitch
perception, arousal, and negative emotions.

How do the two hemispheres communicate with each other? - The two hemispheres are
connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the corpus callosum, consisting of about 200
million axons. The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate with each other
and allows for information being processed on one side of the brain to be shared with the other
side.

What are the three major divisions of the brain? – Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Brain Stem
What are the four major divisions of the cerebral cortex? – Frontal, Occipital, parietal,
temporal

What are the functions of each of the four lobes?  - The frontal lobe is involved in reasoning,
motor control, emotion, and language. Parietal lobe is located immediately behind the frontal
lobe, and is involved in processing information from the body’s senses. It contains the
somatosensory cortex, which is essential for processing sensory information from across the
body, such as touch, temperature, and pain. The temporal lobe is located on the side of the head
(temporal means “near the temples”), and is associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and
some aspects of language. The occipital lobe is located at the very back of the brain, and contains
the primary visual cortex, which is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information.

What happens if Broca’s area is damaged? - People who suffer damage to Broca’s area have
great difficulty producing language of any form for it is essential for language production.

What happens if Wernicke’s area is damaged? - Those with damage to Wernicke’s area can
produce sensible language, but they are unable to understand it because it is important for speech
comprehension.

What could happen if the frontal lobe is damage? – Gage’s case

What could happen if the temporal lobe is damaged? –

What could happen if the parietal lobe is damaged? –

What could happen if the occipital lobe is damaged? –

Other areas of the Forebrain

What are the functions of each of the following brain regions?
v. Thalamus - is a sensory relay for the brain. All of our senses, with the
exception of smell, are routed through the thalamus before being directed to other
areas of the brain for processing.

vi. Limbic system - is involved in processing both emotion and memory.

Interestingly, the sense of smell projects directly to the limbic system; therefore,
not surprisingly, smell can evoke emotional responses in ways that other sensory
modalities cannot.
vii. Hippocampus - is an essential structure for learning and memory.
viii. Amygdala - involved in our experience of emotion and in tying emotional
meaning to our memories.
ix. Hypothalamus - regulates a number of homeostatic processes, including
the regulation of body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure. The
hypothalamus also serves as an interface between the nervous system and the
endocrine system and in the regulation of sexual motivation and behavior.
Briefly explain the types of memory problems that Henry Molaison suffered after his
hippocampus and amygdala were removed.
-
Briefly describe the functions of the following midbrain and hindbrain structures:
x. The reticular formation - is important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle,
arousal, alertness, and motor activity.
xi. The substantia nigra - involved in mood, reward, and addiction. Contains
cell bodies that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, and is critical for
movement.

xii. The ventral tegmental area - contains cell bodies that produce the
neurotransmitter dopamine, and is critical for movement; involved in mood,
reward, and addiction.
xiii. The medulla - controls the automatic processes of the autonomic nervous
system, such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate.
xiv. The pons - serves to connect the hindbrain to the rest of the brain. It also
is involved in regulating brain activity during sleep.
xv. The cerebellum - important area for processing some types of memories.
In particular, procedural memory, or memory involved in learning and
remembering how to perform tasks, is thought to be associated with the
cerebellum.

 Identify the imaging tools under each of the following techniques:

xvi. Techniques involving radiation – Computerized Tomography (CT) Scan
and Positron emission tomography (PET) scans

xvii. Techniques involving magnetic fields – magnetic resonance imaging

(MRI) and Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

xviii. Techniques involving electrical activity – Electroencephalography

(EEG)

If an experimenter wants to find out the brain regions involved in reading which technique would
be the best one to use?

Which of those techniques are the most invasive? – Involving Magnetic fields (fMRI) or
involving radiation (PET)

Which of those techniques are the least invasive? – involving electrical activity or involving
radiation

3.5 The Endocrine System

Look through figure 3.30 and table 3.2 and discuss which hormones are associated with each
endocrine and what are their specific functions.
4.1 What Is Consciousness?
How does the chapter describe consciousness? - describes our awareness of internal and
external stimuli.

a. What is the difference between internal and external stimuli? - Awareness of

internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of
our thoughts and emotions. Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such
as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice
of a friend.

b. Compare and contrast sleep and wakefulness states - Sleep

is a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory
awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness.
Wakefulness is characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior.

What are biological rhythms and what are some examples? - are internal rhythms of biological
activity. A woman’s menstrual cycle is an example of a biological rhythm—a recurring, cyclical
pattern of bodily changes.

Homeostasis is a concept presented in Chapter 3.

c. What does it mean? – The tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a
biological system.
d. Where in the brain is it located? - In the brain, the hypothalamus, this lies above the
pituitary gland.
Where in the brain is our biological clock and what is it called? - The brain’s clock
mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as the suprachiasmatic nucleus
(SCN).

Explain what type of hormone is melatonin and which brain structure releases it. 
e. How is melatonin related to homeostasis? -
f. How does sleep regulation affect people who called themselves “night owls”?
What about morning people? - Sleep regulation refers to the brain’s control of
switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the
outside world. Whether lark, owl, or somewhere in between, there are situations in which
a person’s circadian clock gets out of synchrony with the external environment.

Disruptions of Normal Sleep:

g. What is jetlag and when does it happen? - a collection of symptoms that results from
the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment; traveling across
multiple time zones.
h. What are some examples of jobs that required a rotating shift work? – Healthcare
workers
i. What are the effects of having a rotating shift work and how can they be
ameliorated? – This often results in sleeping problems, and it can lead to signs of
depression and anxiety. Using a bright light, have been shown to alleviate some of the
problems experienced by individuals suffering from jet lag or from the consequences of
 rotating shift work. Because the biological clock is driven by light, exposure to bright
light during working shifts and dark exposure when not working can help combat
insomnia and symptoms of anxiety and depression.
k. What happens when people suffer from insufficient sleep? - When people have
difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they
accumulate a sleep debt.
k. What are the effects of sleep deprivation? - Lack of sleep can result in decreased
mental alertness and cognitive function. In addition, sleep deprivation often results in
depression-like symptoms.

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

When does sleep rebound happen? – When an individual is sleep-deprived.

What are the different hormones secreted during sleep? - Melatonin, follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone.

How is the secretion of different hormones during sleep related to normal daily
functioning? - Melatonin is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological
rhythms and the immune system (Hardeland et al., 2006). During sleep, the pituitary gland
secretes both FSH and LH which are important in regulating the reproductive system
(Christensen et al., 2012; Sofikitis et al., 2008). The pituitary gland also secretes growth
hormone, during sleep, which plays a role in physical growth and maturation as well as other
metabolic processes (Bartke, Sun, & Longo, 2013).

According to evolutionary theories, what are the adaptive functions of sleep? – One
hypothesis from this perspective might argue that sleep is essential to restore resources that are
expended during the day. Another evolutionary hypothesis of sleep holds that our sleep patterns
evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness. Thus we sleep in
safe areas to reduce the chance of harm.

How does the theory of cognitive function explain why we sleep? - involves sleep’s
importance for cognitive function and memory formation.

4.3 Stages of Sleep

Is sleep a uniform state of being? If not, what are the different stages involved in sleep? -
Sleep is not a uniform state of being. Sleep can be divided into two different general phases:
REM sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep.
Why do you think we go through different stages of sleep? –

What happens during each stage of sleep? What characteristics are involved in each? –
How do we know of the different stages of sleep? That is, what tool is used to measure them? -
EEG
What does REM stand for? What happens during REM?
What is REM rebound?
How did Sigmund Freud interpret dreams?
According to Freud, what are the two types of dream content?
According to Carl Jung, what is the collective unconscious? 
How does the dreaming researcher Rosalind Cartwright counter attack the views of Freud and
Jung on dreams? 
What about Alan Hobson’s activation-synthesis theory of dreaming? How does it explain
dreams? 
Which of those dream explanations are you more inclined to believe and why?

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

What are the characteristics of insomnia?

How can insomnia be treated? (Hint: Read through the EVERYDAY CONNECTION topic 
      on Solutions to support healthy sleep)
List the different types of parasomnias and their definitions.
What does sleepwalking have to do with a legal defense? (Hint: Read the story under the
            DIG DEEPER topic)
SLEEP APNEA
What causes it?
What are the symptoms?
What are the treatments?
SIDS
What does SIDS stand for?
What are the symptoms?
Who does it affect?
What causes SIDS?
What happens when someone suffers from narcolepsy?
What is cataplexy?
How is narcolepsy treated?

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

(TABLE)
 1. Why do you think the topic of substance use and abuse is under the sleep and
consciousness chapter?
2. Which manual is used to diagnose people suffering from addictive disorders?
3. What is the difference between physical and psychological dependence?
4. How are tolerance and withdrawal similar and different from each other?
5. Review Table 4.2 and write down the effects of each of the different classes of drugs
6. What is the difference between a stimulant and a depressant type of drug?
7. Why is alcohol considered a depressant drug?
8. How do stimulant drugs work on the neurotransmitter system?
9. Why might opioids be highly addictive? 
10. What is the opioid crisis?
11. How do hallucinogens work in the brain? What neurotransmitters do they target? 

4.5 Other States of Consciousness

What are the other states of consciousness that the chapter mentions? 
How does each one work?
Are they beneficial to our health?

1.4