OpenStax Psychology

Chapter 3 Biopsychology
Study Guide

3.1 Human Genetics:

As seen from the different branches in Psychology, behaviors can stem from a variety of perspectives. The field of
Biopsychology studies psychological behaviors from a more genealogical standpoint, focusing on how inherited
genes can affect not just the physiological, but psychological traits of a person.
● Charles Darwin further explored the concept of inheritance of traits throughout generations in his theory
of evolution through natural selection. In this Darwin explains that organisms with stronger traits and
more durability within their environments will have a higher survivability rate in that those who are strong
will live, leaving the weak to die.
● Borrowing Darwin's core concept, Evolutionary Psychology takes an introspective look on how behaviors
and cognitive processes have evolved over time through inherited traits. Within the field, behavioral
geneticists focus their research on the appearance on individual traits or differences within genes and the
environment.
● To further study the origin of these differences, genetic variations in humans can be traced back to stages
of egg, sperm and fertilization.
○ Each person comprises their genetic makeup, known as their genotype. The genes in our genetic
makeup are made up of DNA, which are responsible for our traits.
○ Inherited physical characteristics through traits are called phenotypes.
○ The majority inheritable traits are delegated or controlled by more than just one gene in such
cases, they are known as polygenic traits.
● Genes are not the sole influence to trait acquisition, however. Environmental interactions can prove to be
just as impactful as inherent properties and play a pivotal role in not only the creation of traits or
behaviors but demonstrate the malleability of innate behaviors as well.

Questions:
1. In your own words, explain why a section on human genetics is included in this chapter?
2. How does the study of genetics help us understand behavior?
3. How do gene-environment interactions relate to behavior?
4. Why do studies on identical and fraternal twins help understand the gene-environment link?
5. Define the following terms:
i. Range of reaction
ii. Environmental correlation
iii. Epigenetics
3.2 Cells of the Nervous System
Biopsychology is not limited genealogical research. The study of cells and organs provide a more introspective look
at our inherent properties as well as a better understanding of psychology from a more biological perspective.
● Our nervous system is responsible for processing the information received by the brain and consists of two
parts: neurons and glial cells.
● Glial cells also referred to as neuroglia, assist neurons in communication between neuron cells. Neuroglias
are not only responsible for supporting nerve tissue structure but help nourish neurons and protect them
as well.
● Neurons are the basic units of the nervous system and are responsible for conducting nerve impulses
needed for tasks throughout the nervous system.
○ A neuron consists of an outer membrane, or semipermeable membrane, that allows uncharged
molecules to move freely through it.
○ The cell body called the soma includes a nucleus that is the general center of command within a
neuron.
○ Outer root like structures known as dendrites branch out, taking in information from other nerve
cells.
○ A longer branch called the axon has terminal buttons containing neurotransmitters at the tips
allow communication within the nervous system.
○ Between these are a small space called the synapse, an important site where communication
between neurons occurs. Located at the nerve endings are receptors that respond to
neurotransmitters.
○ The axon servers are covered in fatty layer called the myelin sheath that acts as an insulator and
aids in the speed of electrical impulse transfer.

● Communications between neurons are made up of a system of signals sent. Neurons exist in a fluid
environment consisting extracellular and intracellular fluids.
○ The fluids are kept separate by the neuronal membrane due to the two fluids being electrically
different.
○ The difference in charge between membranes is called the membrane potential, which provides
energy for the signal.
 ○ When inactive the neuron's membrane potential readies itself, a state called the resting potential.
A shift occurs when cells become positively charged to a point, this state is known as the threshold
of excitation. Signals created during the threshold of excitation are called action potentials.

Regarding behaviors, specific types of neurotransmitters are responsible for certain behaviors even
psychological disorders. Because of this, psychotropic medications can be used to manipulate and treat some
of these disorders by restoring balance between neurotransmitters

Questions:
NEURON STRUCURE
1. What are the two basic cell types found in the nervous system and what are their main functions?
2. Study figure 3.8 and write down the names and functions of each the main parts of a typical
neuron
iv. Which is the part of the neuron that receives the signal?
v. Which is the part of the neuron that sends the signal and how does it send it?
vi. Why is it important to have a healthy myelin sheath?
vii. What is the synaptic cleft and what happens there?
viii. What are receptors?

NEURONAL COMUNICATION
3. The neuron exists in a fluid environment—it is surrounded by extracellular fluid and contains
intracellular fluid (i.e., cytoplasm). The neuronal membrane keeps these two fluids separate
4. What is the difference in charge across the membrane called?
5. Take a look at figure 3.11 and
ix. Define what an action potential is
x. Describe each of the actions happening during the action potential.
xi. Be able to connect them with each other and to name the ions involved in each action.
xii. What happens when the action potential arrives at the terminal button?
xiii. What happens to excess neurotransmitters?

NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND DRUGS

6. Take a look at table 3.1 and think of the relationship between neurotransmitters and receptors
7. Think of ways in the different types of neurotransmitters listed on table 3.1 affect your own
behavior. Write a sentences for each of the neurotransmitters.
8. What is the difference between agonist and antagonist drugs?
xiv. Give an example of an agonist drug
xv. Give an example of an antagonist drug

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

In a broader perspective, the nervous system as a whole consists of two major subdivisions: the central and
peripheral nervous systems.

● The peripheral nervous system is a network of thick bundled axons also called nerves. These nerves are
responsible for relaying messages back and forth between the central nervous system as well as muscles,
organs, as well as different senses within the periphery of the body. The peripheral nervous system is
divided between the somatic nervous system and automatic nervous system.
 ● The somatic nervous system is responsible for conscious or voluntary actions and involves sensory and
motor information messages sent to and from the central nervous system.
● The autonomic nervous system holds control over internal organs and glands and controls our involuntary
actions. Through sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, involuntary functions are regulated
and a state of equilibrium known as homeostasis is maintained.

Note: To study the nervous system and all its subdivisions, it helps to create a treelike illustration in
which you represent the central nervous system on one side and the peripheral nervous system on the
other side. You can then position each subdivision under each of the two subsystems of the nervous
system

Questions:
6. Under the peripheral nervous system, there is a subsystem named the autonomic nervous system
(Figure 3.14).
i. What are its two main subdivisions?
ii. Imagine yourself facing an imminent threat, how do the two systems react to such threat?
iii. What happens after the threat is no longer there? Which system takes over? How does
homeostasis relate to this?
iv. What happens to a person’s health when they suffer from chronic stress?

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord and is the general command center of the entire
body. Covered in a layer called the cerebral cortex, the brain is separated into two hemispheres: the left and right
hemispheres and are separated by a bridge of neural fibers called the corpus callosum.
The brain itself is divided into 4 different lobes, each responsible for different body functions.
● The fontal lobe is responsible for higher thinking skills such as reasoning, language acquisition, emotions,
and motor control.
● The parietal lobe controls responses related to touch, temperature, pain, and felt change.
● The temporal lobe contains the auditory cortex and is responsible for hearing as well as memory and
emotion.
● The occipital lobe is responsible for taking in visual information through the primary visual cortex.

The brain can also be categorized into 3 different parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
● The forebrain covers the general outer hemispheres consists of the thalamus and limbic system.
● The midbrain, which is on the inside, is composed of the reticular formation, substantia nigra, and ventral
tegmental areas.
● The hindbrain is located on the back of the head and contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

To get a more accurate look within the brain as well as representation of brain activity, different methods of brain
scanning can be utilized.
● CT or computerized topography involves x-rays and creates an image through x-rays passing through
varied densities within the brain.
● PET or positron emission tomography creates an image by tracing an injected substance called a tracer.
Tracers flow into the bloodstream and eventually into the brain allowing it to be specifically scanned and
monitored.
● MRI or magnetic resonance imaging utilizes a strong magnetic field in which body cells react and emit
electrical signals to provide a scannable image. An fMRI or functional magnetic resonance imaging can be
used to track brain activity.
● EEG or electroencephalography provides a measure of the brain's electrical activity. The process requires
placement of electrodes around the individuals head to track frequency and amplitude of brainwaves.

Questions:
THE SPINAL CORD
1. How does the spinal cord connect the brain to the outside world?
2. The spinal cord has its own system of automatic processes. What are they called? Give an example
of one.

3. Neuroplasticity
4. What is neuroplasticity?
5. How can it occur in a person’s life?
6. What are the benefits of neuroplasticity?

THE TWO HEMISPHERES

7. The surface of the brain is called the cerebral cortex and it is folded in what are called gyri and
sulci. Why do you think the cerebral cortex is formed this way?
8. The brain is divided into two hemispheres each with its own specialization of function referred to
as ______________________
9. What are the different functions of the two hemispheres?
10. How do the two hemispheres communicate with each other?

FOREBRAIN STRUCTURES
11. What are the three major divisions of the brain?
12. What are the four major divisions of the cerebral cortex?
13. What are the functions of each of the four lobes?
14. What happens if Broca’s area is damaged?
15. What happens if Wernicke’s area is damaged?
16. What could happen if the frontal lobe is damage?
17. What could happen if the temporal lobe is damaged?
18. What could happen if the parietal lobe is damaged?
19. What could happen if the occipital lobe is damaged?

20. Other areas of the Forebrain

21. What are the functions of each of the following brain regions?
v. Thalamus
vi. Limbic system
vii. Hippocampus
viii. Amygdala
ix. Hypothalamus
22. Briefly explain the types of memory problems that Henry Molaison suffered after his hippocampus
and amygdala were removed.

THE MIDBRAIN AND HINDBRAIN STRUCTURES

23. Briefly describe the functions of the following midbrain and hindbrain structures:
x. The reticular formation
 xi. The substantia nigra
xii. The ventral tegmental area
xiii. The medulla
xiv. The pons
xv. The cerebellum

BRAIN IMAGING
24. Identify the imaging tools under each of the following techniques:
xvi. Techniques involving radiation
xvii. Techniques involving magnetic fields
xviii. Techniques involving electrical activity
25. If an experimenter wants to find out the brain regions involved in reading which technique would
be the best one to use?
26. Which of those techniques are the most invasive?
27. Which of those techniques are the least invasive?

3.5 The Endocrine System

Neurotransmitters are into the only things responsible for relaying messages throughout the body. The endocrine
system consists of a series of glands that produce hormones that, like neurotransmitters, send signals throughout
the body. However, unlike neurotransmitters, hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and released at a
much closer proximity to the cells near their receptors. Hormones also regulate a variety of bodily functions and
like neurotransmitters, can be the reason of psychological disorders due to imbalances.

The major glands of the endocrine system include:

● Pituitary gland – control all glands and are responsible for growth of hormones.
● Thyroid gland – responsible for metabolism, appetite, and growth.
● Adrenal glands – delegates secretion of the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine.
● Pancreas – releases hormones that control blood sugar levels.
● Gonads – releases hormones required for reproduction.

Questions:
Look through figure 3.30 and table 3.2 and discuss which hormones are associated with each endocrine and what
are their specific functions