4

Chapter 12

Attention

MEANING
We use the word 'attention' frequently in our day-to-day conversation. During
lectures in the classroom, a teacher calls for your attention to what he is saying
or what he writes on the blackboard.At a railway station or other public places,
announcements start with "your attention please" before informing the passengers
or other people about the schedulesof the trains or some other matter of public
interest. Thus attention is taken as a power, capacity or faculty of our mind, which
can be turned on or off at will or somethingin kind or form that can be lent or
given to this or that situation. However,this notion, as we shall find out, is
misconceived.Attentioncan never be consideredas a force or a faculty of the
mind. We must try to understandit in terms of an act, a process or a function.
Therefore, the use of this term as a noun is misleading. It may be better understood
as a verb like attending or a process involvingthe act of listening, looking at or
concentrating on a topic, object or event for the attainment of a desired result. Let
us consider a few definitions provided by eminent authorities in order to
understand the proper meaning of this word.
umville (1938):
Attention is the concentration of consciousness upon one subject rather than
upon another.
Ross (1951):
Attention is the process of getting an obiect of thought clearly before the mind
organ & Gilliland (1942):
Attention is being keenly alive to some specific factor in our environment. It is
a preparatory adjustment for response.
Roediger et al. (1987):
Attention can be defined as the focusing of perception that leads to a greater
awareness of a limited number of stimuli.
Sharma, R.N. (1967):
Attention can be defined as a process which compels the individual to select
some particular stimulus accordingto his interest and attitude out of the
multiplicity of stimuli present in the environment.
158
 ArrW170N 159

All these definitions highlight the following facts:

l. Attention is essentially a process, and not a product.
2. It helps in our awarenessor consciousnessof our environment.
3. This
4. At any one time, we can conceniFätÜöiT6öusour consciousnesson one
particular object only.
5. The concentration or focus provided by the process of attention helps
us in the clear understanding of the perceived object or phenomenon.
6. In the chain of the stimulus-response behaviour it works as a mediator.
Stimuli which are given proper attention yield better response.
Therefore, for providing an appropriateresponse, one has to give proper
attention to the stimulus to reach the stage of preparedness or alertness
(mental as well as physical) which may be required.
7. Attention is not merely a cognitive function but is essentiall deter-
mined by emotional and conative factors of interest, attitude an
strrvrng.
The foregoing discussion leads us to conclude that attention is a process
carried out through cognitive abilities and helped by emotional and conative
factors to select something out of the various stimuli present in one's environment
and then to bring it to the centre of one's consciousnessin order to perceive it
clearly for deriving the desired ends.

Selectiveness of Attention
How is it possible for an individual to become capable of selecting one message
from the environment and to ignore all others? Psychologists have tried to
propoundsome theories or models of attention to properly answer this question.
Broadly these can be divided into two categories—an early selection theory of
attentionlike the Filter theory and the late selection theories.
The Filter theory put forward by Donald Broadbent (1957, 1958) postulated
the existence of two general systems—the sensory and the perceptual. Many
signals from the environment can be registered simultaneously in the sensory
system.In order, however, to make it possible for the perceptual system to attend
only to one signal and ignore all others, that is roughly equivalent to conscious
attention,the sensory system filters out all unimportant signals before they can
reach the perceptualsystem. As a result of this filtration, extraneous and non-
essentialsignals are excluded from interfering with the selected signals. Since the
signalfor attention is selected in the initial stages of the process, the filter theory
is consideredas one of the early selection theories of attention.
The late selection theories e.g., those of Norman (1968) and Schneider and
Shiffrin (1977) assert that ignored information is not filtered out at a sensory level.
Instead, the information is processed through early stages of perception, and
attention to one signal occurs much later, just before conscious awareness.
Emphasizingthe point further, these theories maintain that although people may
still not be consciousof the different signals at that
point, some kind of decision-
makingopens the door to consciousness for the most
important or expected signal
by ignoringthe others.
 160 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYC1/Otf)GY

Signs and Effects of Attention

How can we know that a particular individual is paying attention or not? In this
connection much can be said through observation of the symptoms or reactions
that accompany the state of preparednessor alertness required by the process of
attention.As a person initiates the state of attention, he may turn his head, fix his
eyes or set his ears toward the object of attention. Besides this, the muscles and
the biological functions of the body may be seen to be specifically preparing for
the object of attention.He may adopt a specific posture or hold his breath, Or his
respiration rate may slow down. In this way, from the observable symptoms in the
form of stance, bodily conditionsand facial expressions,we may decide whether
or not a person is paying attention. However, for drawing more reliable and definite
conclusions, the experimentermust try 10 avail the introspection analysis report
prepared by the subject himself. He should also try to test the validity and
reliability of his conclusions by studying attentively the effects of the efforts made
by his subject.
Some of these effects of attention may be summarized as follows:
1. Attention helps in bringing about mental alertness and preparedness.
As a result one tries to apply one's mental powers as effectively as
possible.
2. Attention helps in providing proper deep concentration by focusing
one's consciousnessupon one object at one time rather than on any
others.
3. It makes us better equippedto distinguishor identify the object of
attention from others.
4. -Attention acts as a reinforcement of the sensory process and helps in the
better organisationof the perceptual field for maximum clarity and
understandingof the object or phenomenonunder observation.
5. Attention provides strength and ability to continue the task of cognitive
functioning despite the obstacles presented by the forces of distraction
like noise and unfavourableweather conditions.
6. When attention is paid to an object, even the process or phenomenon
yields better results in the form of the amount and quality Of learning,
remembering, transfer of training, thinking, reasoning and problem-
solving as well as displaying the inventive abilities and creative
functioning.

Types of Attention
Various authors have classified attention in a variety of ways. The classification
given
by Ross (1951) which seems to be the more acceptable is shown in Table 12.1.
1. Non-volitional or involuntary attention. This type of attention is aroused
without the will coming into play and we attend to an object or an idea without
any conscious effort on our part. A mother's attention to her crying child, attention
towards members of the opposite sex, sudden loud noise and bright colours are
some examples of non-volitional attention.
 A7TE\T/ON
161
Table 12.1 Classification of
Attention
Attention

Non-volitional
Volitional

Enforced Spontaneous Implicit (obtained

(sustained by Explicit (obtained
(sustained by a single by repeated
instincts) by a sentiment) act of will) acts of will)

Non-volitional attention as shown in the above table can

be aroused by our
instincts as also by our sentiments. The attention which is aroused
by the instincts
is called enforced non-volitional attention. A youngman, when we make
an appeal
10 his sex instinct or curiosity, becomes quite attentive in his task. The type
of
attention which he pays at this time can be termed as enforced non-volitional
attention.
The other sub-type of non-volitional attention, aroused by the sentiments is
called spontaneous non-volitional attention. It is the result of properly developed
sentiments. We give somewhat automatic or spontaneous attention towards that
object, idea or person around which or whom our sentimentshave already been
formed.
2. Volitionalor voluntary attention. Attentionis volitionalor voluntarywhen
it calls forth the exercise of the will. It demands a conscious effort on our part. It
is neither automatic and spontaneous nor given whole-heartedlylike volitional
attention. Usually in this type of attention, we have a clear-cut goal before us and
we make ourselves attentive for its accomplishment.Attention paid at the time of
solving an assigned problem of mathematics, answering questions in an exami-
nation, consulting the railway time-table before starting on a railwayjourney are
some example of volitional attention.
Volitional attention is further sub-divided into two categories—implicit
volitional attention and explicit volitional attention. Whereas in the former, a
single act of volition is sufficient to bring about attention, in the latter we need
repeatedacts of will to sustain it. When a child is assigned some mathematical
sums in the class-room, and he does not attend to them, he is warned by the teacher
that he will be punished if he does not do his assigned work. This can make him
exercise his will power, attend to the assigned task and finish it properly. Here a
singleact of will is responsible for the arousing of attention.Hence we can take
it-as an example of implicit volitional attention.
In explicit volitional attention, attention is obtained by repeated acts of will.
One has to struggle hard to continue to be attentive. It requires strong will power,
application and strong motives to accomplish the task. The attention paid at the
time of examination days for the required preparation against heavy odds and
distractions,is an apt example of such attention.

actors or Determinants of Attention

External factors or conditions. External factors or conditions are generally those
162 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOIOC,Y

characteristics outside the situations or stimuli which make the strongest bid to
capture our attention. Let us consider these characteristics.
Nature of the stimulus. All types of stimuli are not able to bring forth
the same degree of attention. A picture attracts attention more readily
than words. Among pictures, the pictures of human beings capture more
attention than those of animals or objects. Among pictures of human
beings, those of great personalities as also of beautiful women or
handsomemen attract more attention.In this sense coloured pictures are
more forceful than two-tone ones. Thus, the most effective stimulus
hould always be chosen for capturing maximum attention.
Intensityand size of the stimulus. In comparison with a weak stimulus,
the stronger stimulus attracts more attention. Our attention becomes
more easily directed to a loud sound, a bright light or a strong smell.
Similarly, a large object in the environmentis more likely 10 catch our
attention than a small object. A large building will be more readily
oticed than the small ones.
Contrast, change and variety. Change and variety attract attention
more easily than sameness an routine. When a teacher is lecturing to
his students, the use of maps and charts suddenly attracts their attention.
We do not notice the ticking of a clock on the wall but it arrests our
attention as soon as it stops. We notice any change in the pattern of
attention to which we have become adapted. Actually the factor-contrast
or change is highly responsiblefor capturing attention of the
organism
and contributesmore than the intensity,size or nature of the
stimulus.
If all the LETTERS on this page were printed in capitals, the
capitalized
word in this sentence would have no greater attention-getting
value than
any other word. It is the contrast or change which makes
it more forceful.
Novelty also attracts attention.We are compelled to attend
to anything that
is new or different.So
it is alwaysbetter to introducechange or novelty
the monotony and secure attention. to break

Repetitionof stimulus. Repetitionis a factor of

great importance in
securing attention. We may ignore a stimulus the first
time, but when it
is repeated several times, it captures our attention.
A misspelled word is
more likely to be noticed if it occurs twice in the
same paragraph than
if it occurs only once. In the classroomalso,
the particular point on
which the teacher tries 10 draw the attention
of the students is raised
again and again. While giving the lecture, the
speech are often repeated,so that the attentionimportant aspects of the
of the audience can be
easily directed to the valuable points. But
this
should be used carefully.Too much repetition practice of repetition
of a stimulus may bring
diminishing returns.
5. Movementof the stimulus. A moving
stimulus catches our attention
more quickly than one which is still. In
other words, we are more
sensitive to objects that move in our field
of vision. Most of the
 AITFM10N
163
advertisers make use of this fact and try to capture
the attention of
people through moving electric lights.
Internal factors or conditions. How much and in what way a person
will attend
to a stimulus depends not only upon the characteristicsof that stimulusor the
favourableenvironmental conditions but also upop the person's own interest,
motives,basic needs and urges etc. Every person likes to do or attend to those
objects or activities that fulfil his own desires or motives and suit his own nature,
interestand aptitude. Let us try to see the part played by these inner factors in
securingthe attention of a person.
l. Interest and attention. Interest is a very helpful factor in securing
attention. We attend to objects in which we are interested and we do not
attend to those in which we have no interest. If we go to the market to
buy a book, our attention will be captured more by book shops than by
cloth and shoe shops etc. A boy interested in hockey will be more
interested in watching a hockey match than football or the volleyball
matches being played at the same time on adjacent grounds.A wise
teacher is able to draw the attention of his students if he tries to make
his lesson interesting by connecting it with their basic needs, drives and
interests.
Motives. The _basic drives and urges of the individual are very
important in securing his attention. Thirst, hunger, sex, curiosity, fear are
some of the important motives that exercise a definite influence upon
attention. A hungry person will definitely notice the smell of cooking.
The man who fears snakes, will definitely be more attentive to things
which resemble a snake. The sex drive occupies a unique place among
the different drives. Even the most inattentive student in the class can
be made to sit on the edge of his chair if the teacher announces that he
is going to talk about the sex-practicesof American hippies. Nowadays
in the world of advertising, sex is the drive that has been most widely
exploited. We can see the shapely girls in bathing suits to sell such
unrelated items as tyres, nuts, bolts and tractors.
Mind set. Besides our interests and motives the mind set is an
important factor in securing attention. Mind set means the tendency or
bent of the whole mind. A person always attends to those objects
towards which his mind has set. A person waiting for a letter from his
beloved can recognize her envelope from among a huge pile of
envelopes.Similarly, on the day of an examinationthe slightest thing
concerning the examination easily attracts the attention of the students.
All this happens because the persons concerned possess a definite bent
of mind and consequently their attention is immediately directed
towards the related objects.

Span of Attention
W ile defining attention, we emphasized that in a strict psychological sense only
 164 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCUOU)GY

one object, idea, or fact can be the centre of consciousness at one particular
moment and consequently we can attend to only one thing at a time. However, it
is found with some people that they can attend to more than one, or even many
tasks at the same time. While writing a letter they are seen attending to the
telephone, keeping track of the time on the wall clock and responding to the
approach of somebody else. In other cases, immediately after entering a room or
hall, some individuals are able to give a detailed account of the number of chairs
and fans, persons present, the pictures on the walls, the colour of the walls or
curtains, etc. In this way, they may possess the ability to grasp a number of things,
or in other words attend to a number of stimuli in one short exposure. This ability
of an individual is evaluated in terms of the span of his attention which varies from
person to person and even situation to situation in the same person. Therefore the
term 'span of attention' may be defined as the quality, size or extent to which the
perceptual field of an individualcan be effectively organised in order to enable
him to attend to a number of things in a given spell of short duration.
Sir William Hamilton in 1859 tried to perform the first experiments on the
span of attention. For his experiments he spread out marbles on the ground before
his students and concluded that on an average the span of visual attention is
limited to 6—7marbles, i.e., we are unable to see more than 6—7marbles at a time.
However, if these marbles are arranged in groups or units, we can attend to a greater
number of marbles. Further experimentswere performed, among others, by later
psychologists.
Experiments to study the span of visual attention are done with the help of
an instrumentknown as a tachistroscopeand a Falling door type tachistroscope
is generally used in college laboratories.It consists of a wooden screen having a
window or hole in the middle. Digits, letters or small patterns written or printed
on cards are inserted in the apparatus to be seen through the hole or window. The
exposure is quite short (generally 1/10 second) which is regulated by a movable
falling shutter. The subject is shown the cards through the hole for the fixed
exposure time. He may, then be asked to record what he perceived and the number
of digits, letters, correctly reproduced may then be considered as the measure of
his span of visual attention.
For measurement of the other sensory span of attention, different techniques
may be employed. For example, the span of auditory attention may be measured
by tapping a number of times and asking the subject how many taps he has heared.

hifting or Fluctuation of Attention

While paying attention to an object, event or henomenon, it is not possible for
us to hold it continuous y with the same intensity for a Ion duration.SInthe course
of time, the centre of our consciousnessel er s 1 ts from one stimulus to another
or from one part of the same stimulus to another part. This is called the shifting
or fluctuation of attention. Fluctuation of attention also involves rapid change in
the intensity of attention. The intensity increases or decreases, ranging between the
payin of attention, not paying attention, and paying least or less attention.
The reason for the shifting and fluctuation of our attention lies in the
division of the field of perception or consciousness at a particular mome.nL
Arm770N 165

consciousness at a particular moment may be divided into two parts, central and
marginal.At the time when our attention is on the wall clock and consciousness
is focused on it, the other objects and activities going on inside the room remain
within the reach of marginal consciousness. This helps us in being partly
consciousor aware of them. Both these fields of perception or consciousnessare
interchangeable.An object of attention at a given moment, may shift to marginal
consciousness or even beyond. Consequently the focus of attention generally
keeps changing thus making the process of attention quite flexible and dynamic.
The phenomenon of fluctuation of attention was experimentally recorded for
the first time in 1875 by the psychologist tjrbantschitsch. While testing the
auditory sensation he observed that the subject was not able to continuously hear
the sound of an alarm clock placed at a distance. At times, he was able to hear the
ticking of the clock, but at other times the sound disappearedfrom his attention.
The study of fluctuation of visual attention can be experimentallymade in
the psychological laboratory with the help of a device called a Masson's Disc. This
disc consists of a circular card-board having four or five patches of ink put in a
line along one radius (see Figure 12.1).

Figure 12.1 Masson's disc.

When the disc is rotated on an electric or mechanically run spindle, each dot
appears to the subject to be a circle. The subject is asked to concentrateon any
one of the blackish circle on the rotating disc and to report when the circle is
raise
clearly seen and when it becomes less clear or blurred. The subject is told to
becomes
his finger when it is clear and put it down when it becomes blurred till it
clear again when he raises his finger once more.

Division of Attention
While reading a book, one's attention is centred around the topic or the material
in hand. In case a favourite piece of music is being played within the subject's
hearing, a number of situations may arise. In one case, the individual may attend
to the music and consequently the reading is given up; in another case, he may
deliberatelytry to ignore the music and thus may be able to concentrate on
reading. In the third case, there may be confusion where he can neither attend to
his reading nor is he able to enjoy the music; in the fourth case, he may be found
to be quite capable of paying attention simultaneously to both the stimuli, namely,
his reading as well as the music. It is the last situation in which the problem of
the division of attention arises. In this case, attention is divided between two tasks.
If more than two tasks are attended to and performed simultaneously then the
attention will have to be divided among those tasks.
166 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHO/DGY

Many researchers have tried to study the effect of the division of attention
on the work product. It has been found that the work products suffer less if both
tasks,
the tasks are simple and similar but in the case of difficult and dis-similar
may be,
the division of attention proves detrimental.However small the amount
may be,
the division of attention proves detrimental.However small the amount
quality and
the division of attention surely results in deterioration in both the
simultaneously-by an
quantity of nearly all the tasks attended to and performed
of attention.
individual. It is rare that no effect is seen as a result of the division
Late Hardayal
It seems to happen in exceptional instances like those of the famous
task
and the mathematical wizard ShakuntalaDevi or in cases where only one
automatically
really requires attention and the remaining tasks can be performed
and need little or no attention.

Sustained Attention
with-
If one desires to be successful in the performance of a task, one has to begin
paying attention or his energies to the operation of that task. But
this is the beginning of a process and not the end. After beginning to pay attention,
care has to be taken to sustain it for the required length of time. The individual
should be wholly absorbed in handling the task, unmindful of anything that might
be going on near him, without getting distracted. This is the sustaining of
attention. In the words of Woodworth(1945):
To sustain attention is to concentrate one's activity continuously upon some
object or happening orp!9blem.
Thus, in the case of sustained attention, there is no wandering. The indivi-
dual attention always remains on track and the activity proceeds uninterruptedly
and without serious distraction. The most striking examples of such sustained
attention are the activities of a hunter who is waiting for the opportune moment
to shoot or of an astronomersitting with his eyes fixed on amarticular star while
looking through his telescope or of a mathematicianworking on a problem for a
long time.
Truly• speaking, if one needs to achieve the required objectives in a
reasonable time, one must learn to pay sustained attention. One must concentrate
upon the activity which one is involved in. A student who cannot keep his
attention fixed for a reasonable length of time is sure to lag behind in his studies.
An artist has to strive for sustained attention so that he can finish his desired piece
of art. A writer, a poet, a musician—allhave to put in sustainedattention.
In order to hold attention for a long time, it is essential to capture the
genuine interest of the subject in the task which he is doing. All internal as well
as external factors for getting attention can also prove helpful in sustaining
attention. Every effort must, therefore, be made to make the best use of these
factors. Moreover, factors which cause distractions and disrupt attention should be
removed. For best results, the individual whose attention is to be sustained should
be provided with favourableenvironmentalconditions to work in, and factors,
which may disturb him mentally and emotionally should be removed or at least
minimized. The will power of the subject must also be adequately developed and
he should be made to strive to attain the set objectives and higher ideals of life.
 A77TM70N
167
YISTRACTION
When we are attending to an object or activity, there
are things in the external
environment as well as inside ourselves that tend
to intrude and divert our
attention from that object or activity. These things
which interfere with our
attention are called distractors. Distraction, as a psychological
term, has been
defined by H.R. Bhatia (1968) as follows:
Distraction may be defined as any stimulus whose presence
interferes with the
process of attention or draws away attention from the
object to which we wish
to attend.
The sources of distraction can be roughly divided into external and internal
factors. Among the external or environmental factors the more common and
prominent are noise, music, improper lighting, uncomfortable seats, unfavourable
temperature, inadequate ventilation, defective methods of teaching, improper use
of teaching aids, a defective voice or improper behaviourof the teacher etc. The
sources of distraction are very diverse and affect an individual accordingto his
own mental set and personality characteristic}. The conditions which cause
distraction to one individual may prove helpful in sustaining the attention of
another.
Therefore, the common notion that unusual environmental conditions always
hinder the progress of work is misleading.Some people are found to work better
in a noisy environment, for instance, some can concentrate better on studies while
the radio is playing. Actually speaking, the source of distraction lies more
commonly within the individual himself than in the external environmental
conditions. Internal distractions such as emotional disturbance, ill-health,
boredom,lack of motivation, feeling of fatigue or preoccupationsunrelatedto the
matter in hand have more effect than the everyday external distractors.If one is
in normal health and not suffering from unusual mental worries and emotional
disturbances, no power on earth can distract one's attention in case one is
determined to pursue one's course. Most of us are in the habit of offering lame
excuses in the name of outside distraction, for failures resulting from our
and lack of determination.
It should not be concluded from the foregoing that external factors of
distractionhave little significance and so can be ignored. In the presence of
external distraction, an individual has to struggle hard to concentrate.He has to
put in greater effort to keep the object before his mind. Certainly, there should not
be such misutilization of energy which otherwise can be applied to achieve higher
aims. Therefore, great care should be taken to do away with all possible
environmentalcauses of distraction. The working situations and environmental
conditions should be so modified and adjusted as to provide adequate working
facilities and a healthy congenial environmentfor an individual whose attention
in the work we wish to capture and sustain.

SUMMARY
Attention is closely related to the processes and products of learning. It refers to
 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYC/101f)GY

168
on the part of an individual to select one out of
effort
a deliberateand conscious in his environment and bring it to the centre of his
present a desired result.
the various stimuli perceive it clearly to achieve
consciousnessin order to
have been put forward to explain the selective nature of
Varioustheories early selection theories like the filter theory,
to
one's attention. According or screenedout at the level of the senses before they
unattendedsignalsare filtered Late selection theories on the other hand, deny
system.
can reach the perceptual level and maintain that the attention to one signal
such filtration at the sensory awareness.
occurs much later, just before conscious
or source as well as mental preparedness and alertness
Attentionis a state of physical be adjudged through keen observation of
which may
on the'part of an individual physiological changeS and by studying the yields
his body postures and positions,
problem solving activities.
of the attended learning or one thing at a time. However, there are
Normally,we can attend*) only
one or even to many tasks at the same time.
peoplewho can attendto more than
of attention, i.e., ability to organise a larger
They are said to possessa larger span
duration. The span of attention can be
perceptualfield in a given spell or short called a tachistroscope.
experimentallystudied with the help of an instrument
same intensity for a long
Attention cannot be held continuously with the
consciousnessshifts or fluctuates
duration.In courseof time when the centre of
object to another part,
from one object to anotheror from one part of the same
it is termedas shiftingor fluctuationof attention. This study of fluctuationof
visual attentioncan be experimentallymade with the help of a device called
Masson's Disc.
The phenomenonof divisionof attention is concerned with the task of
paying attention simultaneouslyto a number of stimuli in one's environment. The
division of attention adversly affects the products of attention. However, it may
be seen that work productssuffer less if the tasks being attended to are simple and
similar in comparisonto difficult and dis-similar tasks.
Attention may be broadly classified as volitional or voluntary, i.e.,
maintained by one's will power and non-volitional or involuntary, i.e., without
exercise of one's will. While in implicit, volitional attention a single act of
volition is sufficient to bring about attention, in explicit volitional attention, we
need repeated acts of will to sustain it. Non-Volitionalattention also has two
categories: enforced non-volitional attention aroused by the instincts and
spontaneous non-volitional attention aroused by the sentiments.
Attention is guided and controlled by external as well as internal factors.
External factors present in one's environment are: nature of the stimulus, intensity
and size of the stimulus, contrast, change and variety, repetition of stimulus,
movementof stimulus, etc. Internal factors represent the factors lying within the
person himself like interest, motives and mind set.
To obtain better results in learning one has to hold the subject's attention
for a desirable length of time without disruption. This needed activity is termed
sustaining of attention. One has to make serious and deliberate efforts to sustain
attention by taking care of all the factors responsible for
maintaining attention and
eliminating or reducing the forces of distraction.
ATTENTION
169

Distractionrepresents interferencewith attention. The source of distraction

may be external e.g., noise, improper lighting, uncomfortable seats, etc. and
internal,e.g., lack of motivation, emotional disturbances,ill health, boredom or
fatigue etc. For achieving useful results, one should try to overcome all such forces
of distraction.

REFERENCES
Bhatia, H.R., Elements of Educational Psychology, 3rd ed., Calcutta: Orient
Longman, 1968, p. 139.
broadbent, D.E., A mechanical model for human attention and immediate memory,
Psychological Review, Vol. 64, pp. 205—15, 1957.
Perception and Communication, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1958.
Dumville, B., The Fundamentals of Psychology, 3rd ed., London: University Tutorial
Press, 1938, p. 315.
Morgan, J.B. and Gilliland, A.R., An Introduction to Psychology, New York:
Macmillan, 1942, p. 128.
Norman, D.A., Toward a theory of memory and attention, Psychological Review,
vol. 75, pp. 522-36, 1968.
Roediger, H.L., Rushton, J.P. et al., Psychology, 2nd ed., Boston: Little Brown &
co., 1987, p. 161.
Ross, J.S., Ground Workof Educational Psychology, London: George G. Harrup &
co., 1951,pp. 170-75.
Schneider,W. and Shiffrin, R.M., Controlled and automatie information processing—
Detection,search and attention, Psychological Review,Vol. 84, pp. 1—66,
1977.
Sharma, R.N., Educational Psychology, Meerut: Rastogi Publications, 1967,
p. 392.
Woodworth,R.S., Psychology, London: Methuen, 1945, p. 48.
(Ed.), Experimental Psychology, New York: Holt, 1954.