Unit III

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cognitive Process is explained by the logical attempt of Attention, Sensation, Perception,

Memory, retention and understanding and Problem solving.
ATTENTION
Attention is the process of getting an object or thought clearly before the mind. – Ross.
Attention can be defined as a process which compels the individual to select some particular
stimulus according to his interest and attitude out of the multiplicity of stimuli present in the
environment. - Sharma R.N.
Nature of the Attention
 It is focusing of consciousness on a particular object: It is the process of the
concentration of consciousness upon one object rather than another.
 It is constantly shifting: When we are attending to an object at a particular time, we are
clearly aware or conscious of it as our consciousness is focused on it. But, we are aware of
many of the things in and around the focused object.
 It is Selective: At a moment, there are various stimuli in the environment of an individual
which try to affect the person. But our reaction to those multi-stimuli is selective based on
our attitude and interest.
 It is a state of preparedness or alertness: It is a preparatory adjustment for response.
Classification/Types of Attention (Ross: 1951)
Attention

Non-Volitional Volitional

Enforced Spontaneous Implicit Explicit

1. Non-Volitional / Involuntary Attention: This is aroused without the play of the will. Here
we attend to an object or an idea without making any conscious effort n our part. Example,
attention towards loud noise and bright colours. This type of attention is further classified
into two categories.
1. a.) Enforced Non-volitional Attention: The non-volitional attention which is
aroused by the instincts is called enforced non-volitional attention. A young man, when we
make an appeal to his sex instinct or curiosity, becomes quite attentive in his task.
1. b.) Spontaneous Non-volitional Attention: The non-volitional attention aroused
by the sentiments is called spontaneous non-volitional attention
2. Volitional or Voluntary Attention: Attention is volitional or voluntary when it calls forth
the existence of will. It demands conscious effort on the part of the learner. It is like solving
a mathematical problem and answering the questions in the examination hall.
2. a.) Implicit Volitional Attention: This is possible by a single act of volition. For an
example, when a child is warned by the teacher to do the mathematical problem in the
class, for the sake of avoiding punishment, she does the problem. So it is called implicit.
2. b.) Explicit Volitional Attention: This type is obtained by repeated act of will. One
has to struggle hard to keep this attention for longer time. So we need repeated act of will
to sustain the attention. For an example, a boy is concentrating on the preparation for the
examination.
Factors Affecting Attention
A) Internal Factors: The following are the internal or personal factors which affect the
attention. It depends on the personal characteristics of a person.
 Interest: One is attentive on an object or thing based on his interest on that.
 Motives: The basic drives or motives/urges of an individual are very important in
securing the attention.
 Mental Set-up: It is nothing but the bent of the whole mind on some phenomena or
event. It represents whole hearted willing on the event.
 Attitude: We are always attracted towards a stimulus and attend to it in relation to
the attitude maintained by us towards that stimulus.
  Mental and Physical State: The person’s physical and mental state directs the
person to be attentive on a particular task.
 Value and Purpose: The intensity of our value and value preference will direct us
towards our purpose.
 Prior Experience and Training: If we have prior training or experience on some
tasks/stimuli, then almost we will not have the hesitation to attend that.
 Habits and Temperament: A person with smoking and drinking habits is attracted
towards the people of that sort and try to serve the purpose. This is due to his habit
and temperament.
 Instincts and Emotions: A mother’s attention towards the crying child is based on
the instinct and emotions of the mother. It is basic and innate.
B) External factors: These are the factors which are outside the person.
Nature of the Stimulus: A picture than a word attracts more. The picture of beautiful
woman attracts easily than the other. So it depends the nature of the stimulus.
Intensity: Our attention is easily attracted towards, loud sound, a bright light or a strong
smell. So the intensity of the stimulus attracts the attention.
Size: The bigger the size greater the attraction. Among the small objects big objects attracts
easily.
Contrast: Among the white the black seeks attraction. Among the similar objects,
contrasting objects receives the attraction.
Change: Change and variety strike attention more easily than the sameness and absence of
change. Among the small letters, Capital letters will attract.
Repetition: Repetition places a vital role in the attention. A spelling mistake in a paragraph
repeatedly coming receives the attention of the reader than the misspelling at once.
Movement: A moving stimulus catches our attention more quickly than the stimulus that
does not move. Example: Moving electrical lights in the decoration attracts more than the
static lights.
SPAN OF ATTENTION
Attention span is the amount of concentrated time on a task without becoming distracted.
Span of attention may be defined in terms of quality, size or extent to which the perceptual
field of an individual can be effectively organized in order to enable him to attend to a
number of things in a given spell of short duration.
INATTENTION: It is an inability of an individual to recognize an unexpected stimulus that is
in plain sight which results in missing details, forget things and impulsiveness.
Causes of Inattention
 Motivational Causes : When we are not interest on the stimuli, we do not attend
 Emotional Causes : The stimuli may not be our preference on the sight
 Social Causes : In the objects in front of us, we do not attend it due to social norm
 Beliefs as Causes : To intentionally avoid
 Overstimulation Causes: When a number of things present in front of us, we may
not be able to attend a few.
 Passivity Causes: When the mind is blind, the eyes are useless.
DIVISION OF ATTENTION: If two or more than two tasks are attended to and performed
simultaneously then the attention will have to be divided among those tasks. It is called
division of attention
DISTRACTION: An interruption to attention or anything that draws attention away from
the primary task. Any stimulus whose presence interferes with the process of attention or
draws away attention from the object to which we wish to attend.
Causes of Distraction
 External Factors: Noise, Music, Improper (ventilation, lighting, seat ),
 Internal Factors: Emotional disturbance, ill-health, boredom, feeling of fatigue and
pre-occupations
SENSATION: Thinking of stimuli and investigating the relationship of the individual’s
experience to various stimuli which reach his receptors. - Woods worth
It is also called gateway of knowledge. It is simple and elementary process for perception
and to know about something.
Types of Sensation
 Visual: The input to the senses may by be picture, object, phenomena, symbol or
event.
 Auditory: The sense organs may listen to the voices and sounds.
 Olfactory: It is the ability of the senses to smell.
 Taste: It is the ability of the sense which receives the taste through the tongue.
  Tactual: It is the ability of feeling the touch through the skin.
Elements of Sensation
 Quality : The quality of the object in terms of colour and other attribute
 Intensity : Contrast, place where it is, Darkness, attractive measures
 Extensity : Distinct from others in terms of place, time, movement and so on
 Clarity : The vivid nature of the object, sharpness and oddness
 Time / Duration : How long it is present in front of us
PERCEPTION
It is the second important process of cognitive development. Perception is
organization of sensation. It includes selection, analysis and synthesis process of the mind.
Perceptions may real or unreal. It is related to previous knowledge and experience. It is
motivated by internal and external factors.
Definition: Perception is an immediate apprehension of objects or all these sense organs by
the way of sensations. - Collins
Nature or Characteristics
 Perception is organization of sensation.
 It includes selection, analysis and synthesis process of the mind.
 Perceptions may real or unreal
 It is related to previous knowledge and experience.
 It is motivated by internal and external factors.
The Process of Perception
Receptor Process: It is the process of sensation. Through the senses the organs receive the
information as objects, pictures, voices, phenomena and events.
Symbolic Process: The received information is processed and symbolized in the mind. It
compares and contrasts with the existing information and tries to store in the mind as a new
concept.
Affective Process: The value system and priority add a new flavor to the concept and
strengthens the concept with new understanding. The personal emotions and feeling on
the concepts are added.
Aesthetic Process: The beautification process starts. According to the prior experience,
especially on the side of goodness and beauty, the concept is enriched.
Unification Process: In the last step the concept is unified using the process of synthesis and
consolidation.
Perceptual Errors
 Illusion: Error in Perception/ False Perception due to misinterpretation of sensory data.
Example: In the dim light at evening the thread on the floor looks like a snake.
 Hallucination: (Abnormal): Perception for which there is no appropriate external
stimulus/ Sensory impression of external object in the absence of any appropriate stimulus
in the environment. Example: At night, having the feeling of hearing the voice of a known
person/family member in their absence.
Principles of Perception
Figure-ground Relationship: According to this principle any figure can be perceived more
meaningfully in a background and that figure cannot be separated from that background.
For example, letters written with a white chalk piece are perceived clearly in the background
of a blackboard.
Grouping of Stimuli in Perceptual Organisation
As said above, according to gestalt principle, the objects can be perceived meaningfully
when they are grouped together. There are some principles which are followed by us in
order to make our perception more meaningful.
a. Proximity: Proximity means nearness. The objects which are nearer to each other can be

perceived meaningfully by grouping them.

\
b. Similarity:
Stimuli need not be nearer to each other for perception. If there is similarity in these
objects, they are grouped together and perceived, even if they are away.
c. Continuity:
Any stimulus which extends in the same direction or shape will be perceived as a whole
Figure 3.5A and B. For example, (A) in this figure though the curved line is broken, it is
perceived as a continuous line, so also straight line is not seen with semicircles but as a
continuous line (B) the dots are perceived as existing in the same line of direction
continuously.

d. Closure:
When a stimulus is presented with gaps, the human tendency is to perceive that figure as
complete one by filling the gaps psychologically. For example, in the Figure 3.6, the gaps are
filled psychologically and perceived as letters M and A, circle and a rectangle.

e. Symmetry:
Objects which are having symmetrical shape are perceived as groups. For example, the
brackets of different shapes shown in the Figure 3.7 perceived meaningfully, because they
are grouped together and perceived as brackets.
Factors Affecting Perception:
There are individual differences in perceptual abilities. Two people may perceive the same
stimulus differently.
a. Perceptual learning: Based on past experiences or any special training that we get, every
one of us learns to emphasise some sensory inputs and to ignore others
b. Mental set: Set refers to preparedness or readiness to receive some sensory input. Such
expectancy keeps the individual prepared with good attention and concentration.
c. Motives and needs: Our motives and needs will definitely influence our perception.
d. Cognitive styles: People are said to differ in the ways they characteristically process the
information. Every individual will have his or her own way of understanding the situation. It
is said that the people who are flexible will have good attention and they are less affected
by interfering influences and to be less dominated by internal needs and motives than or
people at the constricted end.
CONCEPT FORMATION: Concept is a generalized idea about the things, persons and events.
It is our mental disposition on objects or things. It is a mental image about object based on
experience and perception.
Definition: Concepts are patterns, schemes or mental categories which enable us to
interpret the objects of our thought, whether perceptual or imaginative. – Ross
Concept is a process representing a common property of objects or events. – Morgan
Types of Concept
 Concrete Concept: About concrete things present in our environment.
(Living and non-living things)
 Abstract Concept: Concept related to generalized ideas in our environment.
(Honesty and virtue)
 Classical/Definite Concept: Traditionally transmitted from generation to generation. (
Widow and Bachelor)
 Probabilistic Concept: It is uncertain/ difficult to define. It is not necessary to have all
the qualities of that particular concept. (Kalla Payale...)
 Single Concept: Defined by a single feature, property or attribute. ( Colours like Red )
 Complex Concept: Defined by two or more common properties, characteristics or
attributes. ( Blue Shirt and Red Building )
Process/ Phases of Concept Formation
Sensation Perception Mental Image Generalization
Inductive method is utilized in the process of concept formation. The concept
originates with sensation and the concept is fulfilled with generalization.
Sensation: The knowledge, we gain through the senses. It is the fundamental activity out of
attention. The input may be any object, symbol, picture or phenomena.
Perception: It is about to make an enquiry about the sensation. It is the process of
understanding the sensation. It is a complex mental process which tires to give an
understanding to the sensation based on the previous knowledge and existing experience.
Mental Image: The existing knowledge / idea is in the form of mental image. It helps to
compare and contrasts the similarities and dissimilarities of the mental images or ideas
related to all perceived/existed ideas. Finally the latest perception is stored as mental image
in the brain.
Generalization: The mind analyzed the images and synthesizes what is common to all. It
rejects concept merely particular. This creation of commonness is called generalization or
abstraction.
Principles of Concept Formation
 Part Conveys the Whole: The part is the representation of the whole. The whole
consists of several parts. The appealing part to person conveys the whole.
 Perception Depends on the individual’s organization: It involves the attitude and
feelings towards the objects. On the same object one has positive and another has
negative perception.
 Attending to the likeness and differences: Among objects or things, the qualities are
essential to subsequent classification
 Acquiring the names of the concepts: Knowing the attributes lead to learning the
concept and name of it.
 Cognitions and Definitions of the concept strengthens the concept
 Cognizing the Attributes : Through the positive and negative examples the concept
and its attributes are cognized
 The Concepts: It is based on inductive or deductive retained in our mind with rules
and principle with the information for evaluation.
 Continuous Evaluation is needed to learn and update the concept often.
PIAGET COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Schema: an internal representation of the world. This acts as a framework on which the
child bases its knowledge of its environment. According to Piaget we are born with some
schemata including sucking and grasping.
Adaptation: refers to how a child changes over time as it makes sense of the World in which
it lives. Adaptation comes about through the processes of assimilation and accommodation:
Assimilation: new information or experiences can be fitted into the child's existing schema
or current understanding of the world.
Accommodation: new information or experiences cannot be fitted into the child's current
understanding so it either has to alter existing schema or create a whole new schema
Equilibration: Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation
and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration
Stages of Development
Sensory-motor (0-2 years)
The child lacks internal schemas or representations. The child's understanding of its world is
directly through its senses from moment to moment. It is so called because it senses its
environment and carries out movement (motor) to react to it. The child is Egocentric. The
child has no concept of 'self' so is unable to distinguish itself from its environment.
Pre-Operational Stage (2 to 7 years)
Child is still dominated by the external world, rather than its own thoughts. However, it
now forms some simple internal representations of its world (schemas) through its
increasing ability to use language. The stage is called 'pre-operational' since the child is
unable to perform operations. An 'operation' according to Piaget, is a mental rule for
manipulating objects or ideas into new forms, and then, crucially, being able to manipulate
them back again. Since preoperational children are unable to reverse things mentally they
are unable to do this. Conservation of volume, as demonstrated by pouring liquid from
small wide beakers into tall thin measuring cylinders, develops later, at the very end of the
preoperational stage.
Concrete Operations Stage (7 to 11 years)
The child is now able to carry out operations on its environment and develops logical
thought. However, it still requires concrete examples, being unable to think in abstract
terms. Less importance is attached to information from our senses as we use thought and
imagination more. Conservation of number is first (5 to 6 years), followed by conservation of
weight (7 to 8 years) and finally conservation of volume by 11 years of age.
Formal Operational stage (11 years onwards)
Piaget used the term ‘formal’ since children in this stage can concentrate on the form of an
argument without being distracted by the content. For example if x is greater than y but
less than x.
Features
Abstract thought: The child can now think in abstract terms so no longer requires concrete
examples to solve problems.
Hypothetical thought: The child is able to consider things that it has no experience of and
consider imaginary scenarios.
Hypotheses testing: Faced with a problem the formal thinker will approach it logically,
produce a list of possibilities and test each one systematically.
Solve syllogisms: These are a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is reached from a
Piaget and Education (simplified).
Applications/Implication In Education
When to teach: Only when the child is ready. I.e. has the child reached the appropriate
stage?
How to teach: Child-centred approach. Learning must be active (discovery learning.
The order of teaching has to be determined by development of stages, so curricula are
needed. E.g. teach conservation of number before conservation of weight.
Rate of learning: Stages of development are biologically determined so the rate of learning
cannot be speeded up. (Bruner believed that increasing language ability would speed up
rate of learning, but this appears not to be true).
Role of teacher
1. Adapt lessons to suit the needs of the individual child.
2. Be aware of the child’s stage of development (testing).
3. Provide stimulation through a variety of tasks.
4. produce/provide resources,
5. Produce disequilibrium, i.e. a scenario that is outside the child’s current
understanding. E.g. density.
 6. Use concrete examples when describing abstract concepts, e.g. ships floating for
density, pumping water around houses for flow of current in a circuit.
JEROME BRUNER THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Modes of representation
Modes of representation are the ways (or format) in which the child manipulates
information.
1. Enactive (First year)
This is similar to the first half of Piaget’s sensory-motor stage of development. The child has
little in the way of mental faculties so ‘thinking is a physical action.’ Knowledge is what the
child can manipulate or do with movements, for example tying knots, pointing etc. In later
life the enactive mode will allow riding a bike, swimming, driving a car and so on. These are
automatic patterns of activity that have been ‘hard wired’ into our muscles. Thinking about
how we do them or trying to explain to others in words how to tie shoe laces or ride a bike
is practically impossible because they are enactive. As for Piaget, the gaining of object
permanence is a major qualitative change in the child’s thinking.
2. Iconic (Second year)
This is similar to the second half of Piaget’s sensory-motor and preoperational stages of
development. For the first time the child has mental images that allow it to retain pictures
after the stimulus has gone. Drawing is now possible. These icons or images are built up
from past experience and based on a number of exposures to similar objects and
events. Our image of a cup isn’t based only on seeing one cup but on seeing
many. However, at present the child lacks the ability to solve problems.
3. Symbolic (six or seven years onwards)
This is similar to Piaget’s concrete operational stage of development. For Bruner, symbols
include words (language), music, numbers and so an. Anything we use to symbolize
something else. The precise timing of this one depends on the child, particularly its
language ability. For the first time the child can categorize, think logically and solve
problems.
Educational Implication
A major implication of Bruner’s theory is that cognitive development can be speeded up by
training children in the use of symbols.
Concept Maps
 A concept map or conceptual diagram is a diagram that depicts suggested
relationships between concepts. It is a graphical tool that instructional designers,
engineers, technical writers, and others use to organize and structure knowledge.
Significance and Characteristics of Concept maps
 Facilitates comprehension with its visual format
 Synthesizes information by integrating new and old concepts to better grasp the big
picture
 Encourages brainstorming and high-level thinking
 Fosters discovery of new concepts and their connections
 Provides clear communication of complex ideas
 Promotes collaborative learning
 Sparks creativity
 Snapshots your current knowledge to assess understanding
 Identifies areas that need further knowledge or review
IMAGINATION
If we think of an object which is not before our senses and make a picture of it in our
mind, it is imagination. Imagination consists of picturing objects in their absence. It is
subjective, while the sensation is objective. Children are concrete and adults are verbal.
Types
• Reproductive : Repeating the past experience or merely a copy
• Productive: It brings in new structure or object. Example: Theories, novels and stories. It
is further classifies into two categories as follows.
• Receptive: Imagination of the reader who is reading a novel is receptive.
• Creative: Imagination of an author of a novel is creative. It ends in the practical.
Creative imagination is divided into two categories of imagination namely Pragmatic
and Aesthetic.
Pragmatic: Practical and utility oriented imagination is classed pragmatic.
• Theoretical: Pragmatic imagination of a scientist is theoretical.
• Practical: Pragmatic imagination of an engineer is practical.
Aesthetic: If it represents goodness and beauty, it is called aesthetic.
• Artistic : : If aesthetic imagination has certain aim, it is artistic
• Fantasy: If aesthetic imagination has no certain aim, it is fantasy.
Development of Imagination
 Play : Role paying in the classroom
 Models : The teacher has to prepare different models of teaching to the class
 Story Telling : The stories and the characters in the story develops the imagination
 Appreciation : Reinforcements kindle the curiosity of the learners
 Observation : The students has to go for field trip and be allowed observe things
 Investigation : Logical questioning in the class
 Hypothesis Framing : Asking questions on right or wrong
Advantages of imagination
 Guides the actions
 Gives the mental understanding of concepts.
 Planning for the future
 First step for policies.
THINKING
Thinking is a behaviour which is often implicit or hidden and in which symbols
(Images, ideas, concepts) are ordinarily employed. - Garrett.
Thinking is a problem solving process in which we use ideas or symbols in place of
overt activity. - Gilmer
Nature of Thinking
 It is a cognitive activity.
 It is always directed towards some end or purpose.
 Thinking is described as a problem solving behaviour. ( But not Every )
 In thinking there is mental instead of motor exploration.
 Thinking is a symbolic activity.
Tools/Elements/Instruments of Thinking
Various elements are involved in the process of thinking. It is described as follows
Images: Very often images are used an instruments of thinking process. Images as mind
pictures, consists of personal experiences of objects, persons or scenes heard or felt. In
thinking, we usually, manipulate the images instead of actual objects, experience and
activities.
Concepts: It represents the common properties of all the objects or events of this general
class. The concept formation economizes our effort our thinking. Example, the word
‘monkey’ brings all the qualities and attributes of monkey.
Symbols and Signs: Concepts also are usually represented in thinking by these symbols and
signs. The word ‘three’ is a symbol for the concept of trinity and 3 is another symbol. Other
examples are Railway station/School bells or badges/logos.
Language: Language is the most efficient and developed vehicle used for carrying out the
process of thinking. It makes us to think and serves as an effective aid in the process of
thinking.
Types/Kinds of Thinking
Perceptual/Concrete Thinking: It is the simplest form of thinking based on the perception.
The children are much benefitted through this type of thinking. It is out of concrete
experience.
Conceptual/Abstract Thinking: It is based on the belief of the person. It is based on the
understanding and generalized idea about a concept or object. It is higher order thinking.
Language places a vital role in it.
Reflective Thinking: It follows the follows the following structure. It is aiming at solving
complex problems.

Creative Thinking: It aims to find new and innovative relationships among the objects,
things or phenomena. The thinking of scientists or inventors is an example of creative
thinking.
Development of Effective/Correct Thinking
 Adequate knowledge and experience brings excellence in thinking.
 Motivation and definiteness of aim on a specific task help to accomplish the task.
  Adequate freedom on the topic we think and flexibility on the part of thinking will
lead to success in thinking.
 Incubation: It is keeping the problem aside and not thinking on that, we have to take
rest or involve in some other work. Obviously our unconscious mind works on that
problem and tries to solve that.
 Intelligence and wisdom help a person to solve a problem through insight.
 Proper development of concepts and knowledge bring the logic in thinking process.
 The thinking is influenced by reasoning process.
REASONING
Reasoning is step-wise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind. – Garrett.
Reasoning is the word used to describe the mental recognition of cause and effect
relationships. It may be the prediction of an event from an observed cause or the inference
of a cause from an observed event. - Skinner
Characteristics of Reasoning
 Reasoning involves a definite purpose or a goal.
 We resort to reasoning when the initial attempt of solving a problem by habitual
behaviour fails.
 Previous experience is the subject matter of the reasoning.
 All the experiences which are in the form of rules, principles and techniques are
closely analyzed.
 It is an ability of interpretation and high symbolic function.
 It is a careful and systematic thinking.
Types/Kinds of Reasoning
 Inductive Reasoning: Particular to General/ Concrete to Abstract, Example to
Generalization, Problem to Formulae. The following reasoning is inductive
Ram is Mortal ; Karim is Mortal
Mohan is Mortal, Therefore all men are mortal.
 Deductive Reasoning: General to Particular/ Abstract to Concrete, Generalization to
Example, Formulae to Problem. The following reasoning is deductive
All men are mortal;
I am a man; Therefore, I am mortal.
Training in Reasoning
  Intelligence and Hard Work attitude coupled with motivation and strong
determination help much in the efforts of reasoning.
 The learners may be provided with proper learning experience and knowledge for
effective reasoning process.
 Inductive and deductive methods must be incorporated thoroughly in teaching and
learning.
 Training on logical thinking must be provided to the students.
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the
attainment of a goal.
Steps (John Bransford and Barry Stein (1984)
 I – Identification: Identification of the problem by asking questions like whether it a
problem or not?
 D – Defining: If it appears to be a problem, trying to define it.
 E – Exploring Possible: Trying to collect data on the problem in order to solve it and think
of possible solution to the problem. Sequentially arranging the solution to the problem
and thinking the feasibility of implementing the solution
 A- Acting on : In this step, we have to implement the solution to the problem and act on
it
 L- Looking Back : This is evaluation phase where we have to check and monitor whether
the solution is effectively working it or not
LANGUAGE
The Method of Communication either spoken or written consisting of the use of words in a
structures and conventional way
Functions of Language in Cognitive Development
 The Referential Function
 The Poetic Function
 The Emotive or Expressive Function
 The Conative Function
 The Phatic Function
 Meta-linguistic Function
ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 Linking concept with real life
 Presenting concepts as problem
 Confirmation of existing knowledge
 Challenging existing knowledge
 Creating readiness
 Feedback
 Use of AV and Language
 Kindle the mind with puzzles