Chapter 2.

6
Perception
2.6.1 What is Perception?
Perception is defined as the process by which an individual selects, organizes and interprets stimuli
into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world.
It is a cognitive process by which people attend to incoming stimuli, organise and interpret such
stimuli into behaviour.
Stimulus is any unit of input to any of the senses; examples of stimuli (i.e. Sensory inputs) include
products, packages, brand names; advertisement and commercials.
Sensory receptors are the human organs (the eyes, ears, nose, mouth and skin) that receive sensory
inputs. These sensory functions are to see, hear, smell, taste and feel respective.

2.6.2 Perception Meaning

The word Perception comes from the Latin words, “percipio” meaning “receiving, collecting, and
action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind or senses”.

2.6.3 Perception Definition

A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment- Stephen P. Robbins

Perception is an important meditative cognitive process through which persons make

interpretations of the stimuli’s or situation they are faced with- Fred Luthans

2.6.4 Perceptual process

The different stages are – Receiving, Selecting, Organizing, Interpreting,
a. Receiving
Receiving is the first and most important stage in the process of perception. It is the initial
stage in which a person collects all information and receives the information through the sense
organs.

b. Selecting
 Selecting is the second stage in the process. Here a person doesn’t receive the data randomly
but selectively. A person selects some information out of all in accordance with his interest or
needs.
The selection of data is dominated by various external and internal factors.

External factors − The factors that influence the perception of an individual externally are
intensity, size, contrast, movement, repetition, familiarity, and novelty.
Internal factors − The factors that influence the perception of an individual internally are
psychological requirements, learning, background, experience, self-acceptance, and interest.

c. Organizing
Keeping things in order or say in a synchronized way is organizing. In order to make sense of
the data received, it is important to organize them.
We can organize the data by −
 Grouping them on the basis of their similarity, proximity, closure, continuity.
 Establishing a figure ground is the basic process in perception. Here by figure we mean what
is kept as main focus and by ground we mean background stimuli, which are not given
attention.
 Perceptual constancy that is the tendency to stabilize perception so that contextual changes
don’t affect them.

d. Interpreting
Finally, we have the process of interpreting which means forming an idea about a particular
object depending upon the need or interest. Interpretation means that the information we have
sensed and organized, is finally given a meaning by turning it into something that can be
categorized. It includes stereotyping, halo effect etc.

2.6.5 Factors that Influence Perception

Several factors influence how we process the perceptual inputs and transform them into outputs.
There are three broad categories: Characteristics of Perceiver, Characteristics of Target, and
Characteristics of Situation.

A. Characteristics of Perceiver:

A person’s needs and motives, self-concept, past experience, emotional state, and personality
aspects strongly influence the perceptual process.

a. Needs and Motives:

Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their
perception.

For examples, two groups of subjects – One group who is deprived of food for about 24 hours
and the other group which had food enough were shown the blurred pictures and asked to explain
the contents.

The first group perceived the blurred image as food far more frequently than the other group.
People needs and motives thus play a big part in the perceptual process.

b. Self Concept:

It refers how a person perceives himself/herself which in turn influence his or her perception of
the world around them. If a person perceives himself as incompetent, then he perceives the world
as threatening. On the other hand, if he feels himself as confident and capable, he will perceive
everything around as friendly.

c. Attitudes:

The preferences and likingness affects ones perception. A lecturer, who likes bigger class, feels
comfortable in a lecture session which has more than hundred students. Another lecturer, who
likes small class with a lot of questions, may not be so comfortable in such big classes.

d. Interests:
 Individual’s focus of attention is also influenced by the interests of people. A plastic surgeon will
more likely to notice an imperfect nose than a plumber. Because of our individual interests differ
considerably, what one person notices in a situation, can differ from what other person perceives.

e. Past experiences:

Individuals past experiences also influence in molding ones perception. For example if one has
had problem responding to examination questions in the past, he or she will tend to perceive even
simple, straightforward examination question as tricky. Likewise, if a person was betrayed by a
couple of friends, he or she would never venture to cultivate new friendship in future.

f. Psychological or Emotional State:

If an individual is depressed, he or she is likely to perceive the same situation differently from the
other person who is at the extreme level of excitement or happiness. If a person has been scared
of seeing a snake in the garden, she is likely to perceive a rope under the bed as a snake. Thus, the
emotional and psychological states of an individual also influence the perceptual process and the
different types of interpretation of the situation.

g. Expectation:

Expectations can also distort the perceptual process. If a person expects police officers to be more
authoritative and dictatorial, he or she may perceive them as if they are rough and tough
regardless of the Police Officers actual traits.

h. New Experience:

If a person experiences something new, that is more likely to grab attention than the objects or
events that has been experienced before. For example, a person is more likely to notice the
operations along an assembly line if this is first time that person has seen an assembly line. In
1970’s women police officers are highly visible because traditionally Police Officers positions
were predominantly held by males.

i. Personality Characteristics:

There is a strong relationship between personality factors and perception.

For example, secure people tend to perceive others as warm supportive than those, who are
more cold and indifferent.

Similarly, self-accepting persons perceive others as lining and accepting them.

Those who are not self-accepting tend to distrust others. Insecure, thoughtless or non self-
accepting persons are less likely to perceive themselves and those around them accurately.

B. Characteristics of Target:
 The ways things are organized around us are greatly influencing the perceptual process. Some of
the typical characteristics include bright color, noise; novel objects, bigger unusual size, moving
objects, status, appearance, contrast, intensity, repetition etc. catch people attention.

For example, an unusual noise raised by a person, a strong beam of light suddenly flashed, a
very handsome, attractive person among a group of clumsy people, a red light against the black
background, an unusually obese person amidst a group of slim people etc.

a. Organization of Target:

People tend to organize the various parts of elements in the environment as a meaningful whole.
Such organizing activity is a cognitive process and those are based on Gestalt Principles. The
following are the four Gestalt Principles – Figure and Ground, Proximity, Similarity, Closure,
Continuation.

b. Figure and Ground:

What a person observes is dependent on how a central figure is being separated from its
background. This implies that the perceived object or person or event stands out distinct from its
background and occupies the cognitive space of the individual.

In a dance programme, the spectators’ tend to perceive the dance performance against the back
ground music, backdrop setup etc.

The perceiver thus tends to organize only the information which stands out in the environment
which seems to be significant to the individual.

c. Proximity:

People tend to perceive things, which are nearer to each other, as together as group rather than
separately.

If four or five members are standing together, we tend to assume that they are belonging to same
group rather than as separately.

As a result of physical proximity, we often put together objects or events or people as one group
even though they are unrelated. Employees in a particular section are seen as group.

d. Similarity:

Persons, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together. This
organizing mechanism helps us to deal with information in an efficiently way rather than getting
bogged down and confused with too many details.

For examples, if we happen to see a group of foreign nationals at an International seminar,

Indians are grouped as one group, British as another, Americans as yet another based on the
similarity of nationalities.

e. Closure:
 In many situation, the information what we intend to get may be in bits and pieces and not fully
complete in all respects. However, we tend to fill up the gaps in the missing parts and making it
as meaningful whole. Such mental process of filling up the missing element is called as closure.

For example, while giving promotions to the staff members, the managers will try to get full
information to make an effective decision, in absence of getting complete information, managers
try to make meaningful assumptions and based on that suitable decision will be made.

C. Characteristics of the Situation:

The context at which the incident is occurring can influence the perceptual process. The physical,
social, organizational settings, time etc can influence how we interpret the stimuli.

For example, late coming of subordinate at birthday party may be ignored but treated him as an
important guests by the manager, but at same time, the same person’s late coming to an important
official meeting will be viewed as seriously and manager may issue a memo seeking his
explanation.

Thus, the location of an event, the social context in which takes place, timing and the roles played
by the actors play a significant part in how we interpret the situation.

2.6.6 Principles of perceptual organization

The Gestalt laws of perceptual organization theory are based on the following groups of rules
or principles
a. Figure-Ground relationship –As per the principle of figure-ground relationship the human
brain can perceive a figure in a meaningful manner in the background and the beauty of it is that
it cannot be separated from that perceived background.
b. Perceptual constancy – As the name suggests, the term perceptual constancy is about stability in
perception. The tendency of the human mind to perceive objects as unchanging and stable in size
and shape despite a change in the picture we receive is referred to as perceptual constancy.

The concept of perceptual constancy depends upon numerous factors, for instance, imagination,
learning, cognitive styles, motivations, habits, expectancy and experience.
The different types of perceptual constancies are size constancy, brightness and color constancy,
shape and size constancy etc.
c. Perceptual Grouping – The tendency of the human mind to group several stimuli in an easily
recognizable pattern is known as a perceptual grouping.

In this principle, the grouping is based on closure, continuity, similarity, inclusiveness, pregnant
and proximity. A detailed description of every one of them is as follows-
 Law of Closure – The tendency of the human mind to fill in the gaps and perceive meaningful
objects is simply known as the law of closure as it closes the gap in literal terms.
For example, draw a circle in a paper and do not close it. When you show this figure to someone
else, the first thing that he will see is a circle, and it is later when the incompleteness of the circle
will register in his mind. This is because his mind has already perceived the figure as a circle.
After all, the law or principle of closure was in operation.

 Law of Pragnanz – The term pragnanz means good figure, and this is why the law of pragnanz is
often referred to as the law of simplicity or law of good figure. It describes the tendency of a
human mind to perceive the objects in an environment in as simple a manner as possible.
For example, draw a few rectangles that are interconnecting each other. Although the end picture
has now some different shapes as well the human mind will see it as some rectangles because it
will be the most simple and easiest figure to identify in the brain. This is why the term pragnanz
is used for this law as it depicts completeness or fullness of the picture.

 Law of Proximity – The law of proximity describes the tendency of a human mind to perceive
the objects that are near to each other as if they are grouped. It is the human mind that segregates
objects in groups as per its perception.
For Example, Draw six circles in a straight line with a space of half-inch between the first four
and one inches for the last two. The human mind, in most cases, will perceive them as two groups
one of four circles and the other of two circles. This is because the objects are closer to one
another in both groups.

 Law of Continuity – The law of continuity as the name suggests describes the tendency of a
human mind to perceive the objects that extends itself into space in a similar pattern of colour,
size and shape without a break, a whole figure.
For example, if the points are connected by a curving or a straight line rather than seeing
separate lines, they will seem as one entity because of the law of continuity.

 Law of Inclusiveness – The law of inclusiveness, describes the tendency of a human mind to
perceive the objects of a pattern more readily than other figures.
For example, if you draw big dots in the form of a circle and then small dots in the shape of a
rectangle in its middle, then the viewer will perceive the outer dots of the circle more readily
 compared to the smaller ones within it. The outer dots acted as an enclosure or only a fence and
were prominent, thus could be easily identified by the mind.

2.6.7 Factors affecting the perceptual organization

1. Perceptual learning
The best teacher of perceptual learning is experience. Human beings tend to put their onus on
some of the sensory inputs and ignore others if they have received any specialized training.
For instance, if a person has trained in a skilled job like the painting, he will have a better
knowledge about colours and art than people who are untrained in that specific field.
In another example, a newborn baby will identify his mother by the voice or her smell. It is the
perception that helps him to do so. Similarly, a blind man will be able to identify people by their
sound.
2. Perception of space
As per this concept, a person tends to see an object in the environment and perceive it in three
dimensions width, height and distance.
3. Mental set
The term refers to the readiness of a human mind to receive sensory input. This is a type of
expectancy that keeps a person prepared with the right concentration and attention span.
For example, When you are standing inside a metro station, the arrival of a metro train can be
identified by its horn beforehand.
Similarly, when you pass a temple, you can identify it by the sound of bells ringing or chanting of
verse that tells you about that religious place.
4. Motives and needs
It is a proven fact that the motives and needs of a person will undoubtedly influence his
perception levels.
For example, if a person is thirsty, he will instantly recognise water.
Similarly, if a person has been fasting, he will immediately recognise food by the smell or by
identifying the food items amongst various other products.
5. Cognitive styles
It is a proven fact that how a person processes any information will vary from person to person.
This is because of a straightforward reason. Every individual is different, and his way of grasping
things and situation is also different from the other person.

2.6.8 Perceptual Selectivity:

 The selectivity in perception can be brought about by different factors which can be broadly
classified as external and internal factors.
A. External Factors in Perceptual Selectivity:
External factors are in the form of the characteristics of perceptual input or stimuli.
a. Size:
Size May affect the perceptual selectivity by affecting the attraction of the perceiver. Usually
bigger is the size of perceived stimulus, higher is the probability that it attracts the attention
of the perceiver and he may select it for perception.
E.g. Letters of larger size in books catch attention of the readers and they tend to read it
before reading the entire text.
b. Intensity:
More intense the external stimulus is, the more likely it is to be perceived e.g. loud sound or
strong odour, bright light.
E.g. Commercials on TV are slightly louder than the programme.
c. Repetition:
Repeated external stimulus is more attention getting than a single one.
d. Novelty and Familiarity:
Either a novel or a familiar situation can serve as attention getter.
E.g. Job rotation makes people more attentive to their new job or communication in a
familiar jargon is better accepted.
e. Contrast:
Stimuli which stands against the background or which are not what people expect, receive
more attention.
E.g. – Bold letters, Differently dressed person, Different colour
f. Motion:
Moving objects draw more attention as compared to stationary objects.
E.g. TV commercials get more attention than print advertisements.

B. Internal Factors in Perceptual Selectivity:

a. Self Concept:
The way a person views the world depends a great deal on the concept or image he has about
himself. Peoples own characteristics affect the characteristics they are likely to see in others.
They select only those aspects which they find match with their characteristics.
b. Beliefs:
 A fact is perceived not on what it is but what a person believes it to be.
The individual normally censors stimulus inputs to avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs
c. Expectations:
We expect trade union officials to use rough language.
A Mental set about beliefs, expectations and values filter perception.
d. Inner Need:
People with different needs select different items to remember or respond to and experience
different stimuli.
When people are not able to satisfy their needs they engage in wishful thinking to satisfy the
needs not in the real world but in imaginary world. In such cases people perceive only those
items which are consistent with their wishful thinking.
e. Response Disposition:
Refers to a persons tendency to perceive familiar stimuli rather than unfamiliar ones.
E.g. In an experiment people with dominant religious values took lesser time in recognising
such related words as priest or minister. Whereas they took longer time in recognising words
related with economic values such as cost or price.
f. Response Salience:
It is the set of dispositions which are determined not by the familiarity of the stimulus
situations, but by the persons own cognitive predisposition.
E.g. a particular problem in an organisation may be viewed as a marketing problem by the
marketing person but as control problem to the accounting person and as human resource
problem to the personnel person.
The reason is that people are trained to look at the situation from one point of view only, not
from other point of view.
g. Perceptual Defence:
It refers to the screening of those elements which create conflict and threatening situation in
people. They may even perceive other factors to be present that are not a part of the stimulus
situation.
Perceptual defence is performed by:
(a) Denying the existence of conflicting information
(b) Distorting the new information to match the old one
(c) Acknowledging the new information but treating it as a non-representative exception.
2.6.9 Perceptual Errors and its Types

A perceptual error is the inability to judge humans, things or situations fairly and accurately.
Examples could include such things as bias, prejudice, stereotyping, which have always caused
human beings to err in different aspects of their lives.

Perceptual error has strong impact in organization and it hampers in proper decision making skill
while hiring, performance appraisal, review, feedback etc

There are many types of perceptual errors in workplace

1. Selective Perception
People generally interpret according to their basis of interests, idea and backgrounds. It is the
tendency not to notice and forget the stimuli that cause emotional discomfort.
For example we might think that fresher graduates with above 80 % marks will exceptionally
do well in technical interviews of respective subjects
2. Halo Effect
We misjudge people by concentrating on one single behavior or trait. It has deep impact and
give inaccurate result most of the time.
For example we always have an impression of a lazy person can never be punctual in any
occasion.
3. Stereotypes
We always have a tendency to classify people to a general groups /categories in order to
simplify the matter.
For example-Women are always good homemakers and can do well in work life balance
4. Contrast Effect
We again sometimes judge people in comparison to others.
This example generally found in sports, academics and performance review
5. Projection
This is very common among Perceptual errors. Projection of one's own attitude, personality or
behavior into some other person
For example- To all honest people, everybody is honest.
6. Impression
We all know the term "first impression is the last impression" and we apply that too .
For example-During the time of hiring, thought like this "The most decent and modest person
in the interview can do very well in every roles and responsibilities " always arise.
2.6.10 Strategies for Improving Perceptual Skills:
 Knowing Oneself Accurately: One of the powerful ways to minimize perceptual distortions is to
know yourself.
 Emphathize with Others:
 Have a Positive Attitude:
 Postpone Impression Formation:
 Communicating Openly:
 Comparing One's Perceptions with that of Others:
 Introducing Diversity Management Programs

2.6.11 Managerial Implications of Perception:

A manager is primarily concerned with the achievement of organizational objectives. Perception
affects the behaviour of employee. So facts necessarily may not always be accepted. Thus
understanding human perception is important in understanding and controlling the behaviour.

There are five major areas which require special attention so far as the perceptual accuracy
is concerned.
(1) Interpersonal Working Relationship:
Managers in the organization need to know whether or not members share similar or at least
compatible perceptions. If people are not misunderstanding each other, if they are not working
with preoccupied minds and having positive approach then the interpersonal relations can be
strengthened.
Misperceptions usually lead to strained relations and may even result in open conflict among
people.
(2) Selection of Employees:
Selection is based on tests, interviews and review of the applicant’s background. Manager’s
perception should not be biased. Selection of the employees also depends upon how a candidate
is taking the question. His answers will be accordingly.
If the candidate is taking the questions in the same manner as it is asked then he will be in a better
position to answer it in a positive manner. Perceptual difference totally changes the meaning of
the response which sometimes results in major problems.
(3) Performance Appraisal:
Appraisal is highly affected by the accuracy of a managers perception. In most of the cases
promotions, transfers, increments, continuation of the employees etc. depends upon the
perceptual process of the boss. Performance appraisal is related with the performance of the
employees and must be based on objective criteria. But irrespective of this fact, it is dependent
upon the subjective criteria e.g. personal likes and dislikes of superior.
(4) Level of Efforts:
While judging the level of effort of a person the manager appraises the qualitative aspect of an
employees performance. If he perceives them as putting in sufficient efforts and being sincere
then he would rate them high in spite of their not achieving targets and vice versa. Manager must
be careful while judging this aspect.
(5) Increase in Loyalty Level:
With proper application of perception the loyalty level can be increased. If the employees think
that management is not taking any undue advantage from them, management is understanding
them, then they will perceive it as their own organization and switching over of jobs will be
decreased.