PSYCHOLOGY

HARI KRISHNA G L

1
 CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Biological basis of behavior
• Perception & attention
• Learning
• Memory
• Thinking
• Intelligence
• Motivation, conflict
• Stress
• Personality
• Developmental psychology
• Social psychology
• Mental hygiene
• Adjustment
• Guidance & counselling
• Psychological tests
• Evaluation
 Chapter 01- Introduction
• Definitions
• Schools of Psychology
• Major landmarks in Psychology
• Methods in Psychology
 Chapter 01: Introduction

• Psychology is a Greek word- ‘psychi’ and

‘logos’
• ‘Psychi’ means soul and ‘logos’ means study of

• Wilhelm Wundt (Father of psychology)

founded the first psychological laboratory at
the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879
 Study of “Soul” Study of “Mind”

Study of “Conscious Study of “Behavior”

experiences”

Study of “Behavior
and Mental
processes”
• “Psychology is the science that studies the behavior – the
actions, mental processes and experiences of human beings
and other organisms”
- Saccuzzo (1987)
• “Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental
processes”
-Morris (1988) & Feldman (1999)

• “According to Modern Psychologist “Psychology is the

scientific study of behaviour and mental process”
 Schools of psychology
1. Structuralism: ideas of Wundt & Titchener.
The goal of the structuralist was to find the
units/elements, which make up the mind.

The main method used to discover these

elementary units of mind was introspection.
2. Gestalt psychology: by Max Wertheimer in
1912
They felt that structuralists were wrong in
thinking of the mind as being made up of
elements.
They argued that mind could be thought of as
resulting from the whole pattern of sensory
activity
3. Functionalism: Psychology should do what
mind and behavior do...John Dewey, Angell

4. Behaviourism: John Watson

5. Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud

 Major landmarks in Psychology
• 1879- Wilhelm Wundt inaugurated first
psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany
• 1900- Sigmund Freud –Psychodynamic
perspective
• 1904- Ivan Pavlov- nobel prize- Classical
conditioning
• 1924- Watson- Behaviourism
 Methods of Psychology
1. Introspection/self observation
2. Observational method
3. Experimental method
4. Clinical/case history method
5. Survey method
 Introspection
• Oldest method
• Look within
• Fundamental method of psychology
• Self observation
• Experimental method- most scientific and
objective method.

• The first step in scientific method involves

identifying questions of interest
Chapter-02 Biological basis of behavior

• Human behavior involves body- mind

interaction. The most important are
1. The sense organs, called receptors
2. Muscles and endocrine glands called
effectors
3. Nervous system – connecting or integrating
mechanism.
1. Receptors: The stimuli in the form of various sensory
experiences are received by our sensory systems
known as receptors.
a. External receptors: contact with outer world like
eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin
b. Internal receptors: associated with internal stimuli
present in our body like feelings of pain, hunger,
nausea. Also helps us in maintaining balance,
posture, equilibrium etc.
c. Sense organs:
 Effectors
• Organ of responses
• What is received through the sensory organs is
responded through bodily reactions and
motor activities carried out through muscles
and glands.
a. Muscles: help to carry out motor activities in
order to respond to stimuli. 3 type of muscles.
b. Glands: assist in digestion of food, elimination of
waste products, production and prolongation of
emotional states and regulation of metabolism of
the body.
2 types of glands. Duct and Ductless glands.
Duct glands release their chemical secretion
through little ducts or tubes into the body cavities
or on the surface of the body. Eg: salivary glands,
gastric glands, sweat glands, kidneys, sex glands
• Ductless or endocrine glands secrete chemical
substances called hormones. The hormones
are released into the blood stream and carried
to all parts of the body.
• Connectors or adjustors help in regulating,
controlling or coordinating the activities of
receptors and effectors.
• Neuron-
• Neuro transmitters-
• Nervous system
• The basic unit of nervous system is neuron
• Information is passed from one neuron to
another at synapses by neurotransmitters
 Chapter 03: Perception & Attention
• Errors in perception:

• Extra sensory perception:

1. Telepathy: Transmission of thought without any
normal means of communication between 2 persons.
2. Clairvoyance: Supernormal mode of perception which
results in a visual image being presented to the
conscious mind. There is coincidental truth in the
visual perception and in some cases as in dreams or in
trance.
• Precognition: It is the ability to sense future
events psychically. Eg. A person may have a
sudden hunch that something is going to
happen
• Premonition: The unpleasant side of
precognition. It is the ability to sense
unpleasant events like deaths etc
 Attention
• Attention is the concentration of
consciousness upon one object rather than
upon another.

Types of attention:
• Voluntary( volitional)
• Involuntary (non- volitional)
 Voluntary attention
• It demands conscious effort on our part. Eg: answering
a question in an exam.
• Subdivided into 2 categories
a. Implicit volitional attention: A single act of will is
responsible for arousing attention. Eg: a teacher
assigns practice work to a child and warns of
punishment if not completed.
b. Explicit volitional attention: Attention is obtained by
repeated acts of will. Eg: attention paid during exam
days for securing rank
 Involuntary attention
• This type is aroused without the play of will or
making a conscious effort on our part. Eg: we
give involuntary attention to loud sounds, bright
lights etc
• Involuntary or non volitional attention aroused
by instincts is called enforced non volitional
attention. Eg: giving attention out of curiosity
• And aroused by sentiments is called
spontaneous non volitional attention.
 Span of attention
• The maximum amount of material that can be
attended in one period of attention is called
span of attention.
• Can be visual or auditory attention
• Span of visual attention – time of exposure is
1/100 to 1/5 of a second.
• Span of auditory attention- can perceive 8
sounds given rapidly in succession.
 Work out...
1. A person busy writing an assignment hears a
loud sound and immediately attends to it,
this is an example of
a. Involuntary attention
b. Voluntary attention
c. Habitual attention
d. None of these
2. In visual span of attention at a brief glance
how many units can be perceived?

a. 4 or 5 units
b. 6 or 7 units
c. 7 or 8 units
d. 8 or 9 units
3. Attention to two or more tasks simultaneously
is called

a. Visual span of attention

b. Auditory span of attention
c. Division of attention
d. None of these
4. Leakage of LPG gas in your house catches your
attention. It is an example of

a. Involuntary attention
b. Voluntary attention
c. Habitual attention
d. None of these
 Today’s discussion topics
• Chapter 04: Learning
• Chapter 05: Memory
• Chapter 06: Thinking
• Chapter 07: Intelligence
• Chapter 08:Motivation, conflict
 Chapter 04: Learning
• Learning- modification of behavior to meet
environmental requirements
• Learning process includes Perception learning,
conceptual learning, association learning,
appreciational learning, attitudinal learning.

• Steps in learning process- A motive or drive, an

attractive goal and a block to the attainment of
the goal.
 Types of learning
• Conditioning learning:
• Verbal learning:
• Motor learning:
• Concept learning:
• Problem solving learning:
• Attitude learning:
• Serial learning:
• Paired associate learning:
 Theories of learning
1. Trial and error theory:
• Propagated by Edward Lee Thorndike.
• Making bonds between stimuli and
responses
• Learning is nothing but the stamping in of the
correct responses and stamping out of the
incorrect responses through trial and error.
2. Learning by conditioning:
• Theory of classical conditioning or Type –S
conditioning or respondent learning
• Ivan Pavlov
• Salivation- unlearned response/unconditioned
response
• Food- unconditioned stimulus(natural)
• Bell- conditioned stimulus(artificial stimulus)
• Extinction & spontaneous recovery
3. Operant conditioning/ Type – R conditioning
or Instrumental conditioning:

• B F Skinner
• Learning is shaped and maintained by its
consequences
• Reinforcement
 Types of reinforcement
Procedure Increases Decreases

Presentation of stimulus Positive reinforcement Positive punishment

Eg: giving praise for good Eg: giving a beating
performance following misbehavior

Removal of stimulus Negative reinforcement Negative punishment

Eg: terminating a Eg: removal of favourite
headache by taking toy after misbehavior
Paracetamol
4. Theory of Insightful learning (Gestalt Psychology):
• Max Wertheimer in 1912
• Gestalt means form or shape or a particular
arrangement of elements.
• The basic idea is that the whole is more than the
sum of its parts
• Gestalt psychologists tried to interpret learning as a
purposive, exploratory and creative process, rather
than trial and error or conditioning.
• Learning is restructuring the field of perception
through insight
5. Cognitive theory:
• Learning through imitation/observational
learning/social learning theory
• Albert Bandura- 4 steps
• Paying attention and perceiving the most critical
features of another person’s behavior
• Remembering the behavior
• Reproducing the action
• Being motivated to learn and carry out the
behavior
 Transfer of learning
• The influence that learning one task may have on the
subsequent learning of another is called transfer of
learning.
• Transfer- 3 forms
• Positive transfer: when something previously learned
benefits performance or learning in a new situation.
Eg: Tennis- badminton
• Negative transfer: English pronounciation
• Zero transfer/ neutral transfer: Learning history --
economics
 MCQ s
1. You begin to salivate at the sight of a pizza
hut sign. When this happens, the sight of sign
is an example of
a. Unconditioned stimulus
b. Discriminative stimulus
c. Conditioned stimulus
d. Conditioned response
 Chapter 05: Memory
• Memory consists in remembering what has
previously been learned.

• 4 factors of memory are learning or

registration, retention, recall and recognition.
• Memory is divided into 3 stages: encoding,
storage and retrieval.

• Types of memory:
• Immediate Memory- Sensory Memory
• Short term memory(STM)
• Long Term Memory(LTM)
• Immediate/sensory memory: forgetting
typically within one second
• Short term memory/working memory :
forgetting within about 15-25 seconds
• Long term memory: permanent basis
• Long term memory- categorized as
1. Declarative memory: memory related to factual
information. Eg: dates and facts such as bike has 2 wheels
2. Procedural memory: memory related to skills and habits
like how to ride a bike
Declarative memory further divided as
3. Semantic memory: memory related to GK & facts about
world like earth is round etc
4. Episodic memory: memory related to biographical details
like DOB, qualification etc
• When new memories interfere in the retrieval
of old memory it is called retro active
interference.
 MCQ s
1. Which of the following types of long term
memory deals with individual’s personal
experiences?
a. Semantic memory
b. Episodic memory
c. Procedural memory
d. None of these
 Chapter 06: Thinking
• Thinking is a problem solving process in which
we use ideas or symbols in places of overt
activity.
 Types of thinking
1. Perceptual/concrete thinking: simplest form of
thinking. Basis is perception. Present in animals
and children.
2. Conceptual/ abstract thinking: use of concepts,
ideas, language.
3. Reflective/logical thinking: solving complex
problems
4. Creative thinking:
5. Critical thinking:
 MCQ s
1. Thinking which aims at solving complex
problems is

a. Perceptual thinking
b. Reflective thinking
c. Abstract thinking
d. Creative thinking
 Chapter 07: Intelligence
• Intelligence is the global capacity of the individual to think
rationally, to act purposefully and to deal effectively with
the environment.
• Types:
a. Concrete intelligence: using concrete objects. Like tools,
equipments etc... Eg. Engineers
b. Social intelligence: react to social situations... Ministers,
leaders, salesmen
c. Abstract/General intelligence: ability to respond to
words, numbers etc... Teachers, doctors, nurses, lawyers..
 Gardner’s multiple intelligence- 8
• Musical
• Bodily kinesthetic
• Logical mathematical
• Linguistic
• Spatial
• Interpersonal
• Intra personal
• Naturalist
• IQ- 1916- Standford Binet
 Theories of intelligence
1. Two factor theory/ G- factor theory: Charles
Spearman.
• G- General intelligence factor
• G- Universal inborn ability
• Ability, A= G+ S1+S2+S3+.....
• S- learned and acquired in the envt like
language ability, mathematical etc
2. Group factor/multifactor theory: LL Thurstone in
1938
Verbal factor
Spatial factor
Numerical factor
Memory factor
Reasoning factor
Perceptual factor
Problem solving factor
 Jean Piaget’s theory, 1970
• Intelligence is an adaptive process involving
interplay of biological maturation and
interaction with the envt.
 Assessment of intelligence
• Individual verbal tests: Standford Binet test
• Individual non verbal( performance tests):
picture arrangement, block design etc. Eg:
Bhatia’s battery of performance test
• Group verbal tests: Army alpha test.
• Group non verbal tests: fill empty spaces,
point out similarities and differences. Eg: Army
Beta test.
 Chapter 08: Motivation
• Maslow’s hierarchy
• Biological/primary drive: hunger, thirst, sex..
• Socio-psychological/secondary drive:
fear/anxiety, achievement, aggression,
dependence
 Motives
• Innate or unlearned
• Acquired or learned

OR
1. Physiological/primary motives
2. Social/ secondary motives
3. Personal motives
4. Unconscious motives
 Physiological/primary motives

• Hunger
• Thirst
• Respiratory
• Need for rest and sleep
• Need for elimination of waste
• Sex motive
 Social/ secondary motives

• Affiliation motives
• Need for status
• Power motive
• Social approval
 Personal motives

• Need for achievement

• Vocational ambitions
• Interests and attitudes
• Fear
• Curiosity
Methods of measuring motivation
• Projective tests: TAT
• Personality inventories: PAPQ Eg: Edwards
Personal preference schedule- measures
human social needs, Taylor’s Manifest anxiety
scale
• Situational tests:
Theories of motivation
 Conflict
Types:
• Approach- Approach conflict
• Avoidance- Avoidance conflict
• Approach- Avoidance conflict
• Multiple Approach-Avoidance conflict
 MCQ’s
1. An individual who is fighting to climb the
career ladder is striving to satisfy his

2. A person who works hard to increase his

wealth is satisfying his
 Chapter 09: Stress
GAS – Hans Selye
• Alarm reaction or Fight/Flight response
• Resistance reaction
• Exhaustion stage

• Homeostasis: W B Cannon in 1939

Chapter 10: Personality
Types of personality
1.
2. Kretschmer’s classification
3. Sheldon’s classification
 4. Jung’s classification
• Extrovert and Introvert
 5. Allport classification
• Ascendant: dominate a situation, outgoing

• Descendent: Submissive, self-critical,

withdraws from social situations
 Type A & Type B personality
• Type A: Hard driving and competitive,
constant pressure

• Type B: easy going, non-competitive, will work

hard when given a deadline, bear stress easily
 Personality assessment
• MMPI- True/False/Cannot say-550 statements
• Projective techniques: Rorschach inkblot tests,
TAT, word association or free association test
and SCT
• Rorschach inkblot test- Herman
Rorschach,1921- 10 inkblots
• TAT- C D Morgan and Henry Murray in 1935
 Theories of personality
1. Allport: 3 types of personal dispositions:
a. Cardinal disposition: so dominant that all
actions of the persons are guided by it. Eg.
Nightingale

b. Central disposition: not as dominant as cardinal,

but they influence person’s behavior in a
prominent way. They are called building blocks
of personality. Eg: punctuality, honesty
c. Secondary disposition: not very consistent,
less relevant in reflecting the personality. Eg:
food preferences..
 2. Raymond Cattell’s theory
• Human behavior is determined and can be
predicted.
• R= f(S,P)
• R- Response of the person is a function(f) of
the stimulus(S) at a given moment of time,
and of the existing personality structure(P).
• 16PF Questionnaire
 3. Hans Eysenck’s theory
• Trait type theory of personality:
• Introversion- extroversion
• Stability- instability(neuroticism)

• Psychoticism -superego- selfish, impulsive

• EPQ
Thank you