Chapter 1

Psychology—Meaning,
Nature and Scope

INTRODUCTION
The subject psychology has been becoming increasingly popular day by day. The
number of colleges and the students opting for the study of this subject is going
up every year in almost all the universities in India. This fast growing subject is
an offshoot of Philosophy.With the passage of time, the content of Psychology
has acquired a scientific nature and it is no longer based on speculation.The
gradual change of this subject from Philosophy to Science has been responsible
for the changes in its meaning and concept from time to time as may be evident
from the followingdiscussion.

PPFINING PSYCHOLOGY
1. In terms of the study of the soul. The earliest attempts at defining psycho-
logy owe their origin to the most mysterious and philosophical concept, namely,
that of soul. Etymologically,the very word 'psychology' means the study of the
soul as it is derived from the two Greek words psyche, meaning soul and logos,
signifying a rational course of study.
2. In terms of the study of the mind. What is soul? How can it be studied? The
inability to find clear answers to such questions led some ancient Greek
philosophers to define psychology as the "study of the mind". Although the word
mind was less mysterious and vague than soul, yet it also faced the same questions,
namely: What is mind? How can it be studied? Consequently,this definition was
-also rejected.
3. In terms of the study of consciousness. The failure to define the terms soul
and mind persuaded the philosophers and psychologists to search for some other
suitable definitions.
William James in his book Principles of Psychology published in 1890
defined psychology as "the description and explanation of state of consciousness
as such".
Wilhelm Wundt (1832—1920) who( established the 9rst psychology
 2
ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL

laboratory at the University of Leipzig&in

Germany and his disciple Edward
i)radford Titchener also defined psychology as the science of consciousness.
According to these psychologists, the description and explanation of the states of
consciousness is the task of psychology which is usually done by the instrument
of 'introspection'—the process of looking withirv
This definition was also rejected on the following grounds:
(a) It has a very narrow range on account.pfaits, not talking about the
subconscious and unconscious activities of the mind.
(b) 'being entirely subjective, the introspectionmethod for the study of the
conscious activities of the mind was an unscientific method.
(c) It could not include the study of the consciousnessof animals.
4. In terms of the study of behaviour. From the nineteenth century onwards,
with the advent of the modern era of scientific investigation and¯thought,
psychology began to be defined in terms of the study of behaviour.
William McDougall, a British psychologist, was the first to define
psychology as the science of behaviour.In his book Physiological Psychology
published in 1905 he wrote:
Psychology may be best and most comprehensivelydefined as the positive
science of the conduct of living creatures.
Later, in 1908, in his book Introductionto Social Psychology, he added the word
'behaviour' to his definition and finally in 1949 in his book An Outline of
Psychology gave the following meaningful definition:
Psychology is a science which aims to give us better understanding and control
of the behaviour of the organism as a whole.'
In the same period, Pillsbury (1911) gave the same behavioural definition
of the term psychology: "Psychologymay be most satisfactorily defined as the
Science of human behaviour".
However, in later years, in 1913, J.B. Watson, the father of the behaviourist
school, elaborated the concept of the term behaviour including in it both human
and animal behaviour and defined psychology as "the science of behaviour"
(taking into account human as well as animal behaviour).
Taking clues from the earlier work, contemporary psychologists and various
other writers have explained and defined psychology as the science of behaviour
using a somewhat different vocabulary.
N.L. Munn (1967) says:
Psychology is a science and the properly trained psychologist is a scientist or
at least a practitioner who uses scientific methods and information resulting from
scientific investigation.

Similarly, according to Desiderato, Howieson and Jackson (1976):

Psychology can be broadly defined as the investigation of human and animal
behaviour and of the mental and physiological processes associated with the
behaviour.
 NATVREAND SCOPE
3
Conclusion
The foregoing discussion on the definitions of Psychology clearly shows
that the
meaning and concept of this subject has changed frequently depending
upon
whether it was based on philosophicalor scientific thinking. Commentingon
this
aspect, Woodworth (1948) says:
First psychology lost its soul, then its mind, then it lost its consciousness. It still
has behaviour of a sort.
Although even at this final stage there seems to be no agreement over a
universal definition of Psychology, yet the definitions may be generally viewed
in the light of behaviour.It may then be concludedthat Psychologyis a science
of behaviour or a scientific study of behavioural activities and experiences.The
questions which remain unanswered at this stage are:
(a) What do we actually mean by the term 'behaviour'?
(b) What is the nature of Psychology? Is it a science? If yes, then what kind
of science IS it?

Meaning of the Term Behaviour

The term 'behaviour' is take? in its totality, connoting a wide and comprehensive
meaning. "Any manifeståfion of life is activity," says Woodworth (1948), and
behaviour is a collective name for these activities.Therefore, the term 'behaviour
ifélüdes all the motor or conauve actrvtues like walking, swimming, dancing etc.;
cognitive activities, e.g., thinking, reasoning, imagining etc., and affective
activities like feeling happy, sad, angry, etc.
This includes not only the conscious behaviour and activities of the human
mind but also the subconsciousand unconsciousand hence covers not only the
overt but also the covert behaviour involving all inner experiences and mental
processes.
It is not limited to the study of human behaviour.The behaviourof animals,
insects, birds and even plants also comes within the purview of Psychology.
Therefore, when we talk about the study of behaviour in Psychology, we mean the
study of behaviour of all living organisms.
In a nutshell then, the term behaviour refers to the entire life activities and
experiences of all living organisms.

NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY
It is an accepted reality that the nature of Psychology is quite scientific. This fact
has been properly recognized by eminent psychologists and thinkers as may be
inferred from the definitions of Psychology, in terms of the scientific study
or science of behaviour,already given. Let us, however,try to analyze why
Psychology should be called a science. In general, we may term a subject
scientific, if it
J. possesses a body of facts which can be supported through universal laws
and principles;
 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL

emphasizes the search for truth;

3. does not believe in hearsay, stereotypes or superstition;
4. believes in cause and effect relationships;
5. adopts the method of objective investigation, systematic and controlled
observation and a scientific approach;
6. stands for the generalization, verifiability and modification of the observed
results or deduced phenomena;
7. helps in predicting future developments; and
8. is able to turn its theory into practice by having an applied aspect.
Let us summarizethe nature of psychology in the light of the above-
mentioned criteria.
l.Psychology possesses a well-organizedtheory which is supported by the
relevant psychological laws and principles.
2. It has its applied aspect in the form of various branches of applied
psychology like industrial, legal, clinical and educational psychology.
3. It believes that every behaviour has its roots, and factors causing,
influencing or nurturing it.
4. Subjective ideas and opinions are not considered significant in the study
of behaviour in psychology. It emphasizes the search for truth by
advocating objectivity, reliability and validity in the assessment of
behaviour.
5. The methods and techniques employed in the study of behaviour in
psychology are quite scientific. Steps like the analysis of behaviour,
formulation of hypotheses, objective observations or controlled
experimentation, deduction, verification and generalization of the results
etc. provide the solid base for the scientific method and approach in
psychology.
6. The results of the study of behaviour are always open to verification
under similar conditions by other experimenters and observers. These
results may be accepted, modified, or altered in the light of the latest
data and findings.
7. The established facts, principles and laws of behaviour in Psychology
enjoy universal applicability in practical life, in other bodies of
knowledge and future researches in its own sphere.
8. An appropriate description and quantification of behaviour is possible
through psychology. We may make dependable predictions about the
organism in the light of its studied behaviour.
On the basis of the above characteristics, it may be established beyond doubt
that Psychology qualifies as a science. Its nature is quite scientific and not
philosophical or esoteric as it used to be in the olden days.

What Kind of Science is Psychology?

We can divide all the sciences into two broad categories—-thepositive and the
normative. While physical and life sciences are termed as positive sciences,
PSYCHOUX3Y—MEANING, NATUREAND scobE 5

subjects like logic, philosophy and ethics are included in the category of
normative sciences.
In contrast to normative sciences, positive sciences study facts as they are
and have little or no concern with what ought to be. Psychology in this sense
easily falls in the category of positive sciences.

What Kind of Positive Science is Psychology?

The question that arises is: Can we equate Psychology,the science of behaviour
with the positive sciences like Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Astronomy
and Mathematics? The answer lies in the negative. In comparison to these sciences,
Psychologyis not so perfect and developeda science. In fact, it is a behavioural
science which deals with the behaviour of an organism. This behaviour is quite
dynamic and unpredictable. Methods of its study are also not as absolute and
objective as those adopted by the natural sciences. On the other hand, physical
or chemical reactions studied by the natural sciences are always predictable on
account of the nature of the material involved and the study processes. As a result,
the studies in natural sciences are bound to be more exact, accurate and objective
than the studies of behaviour in psychology.
It is, therefore, not correct to place Psychology in the same category as the
physical and natural sciences. Although constant efforts are being made to make
its techniques and approach as objective, exact and accurate as possible,
Psychology has not yet attained the position and status of these sciences. Thus it
may, in the true sense of the term, be called a developing positive science rather
than a developed positive science. Hence, in the ultimate analysis, for
understandingthe nature and meaning of the subject, we can define psychology
as a developingpositive science of behaviour.

SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
The scope of a subject can usually be discussed under two heads:
l. The limits of its operations and applications.
2. The branches, topics and the subject matter it deals with.
The field of operation and applications of psychology are too wide. It
studies, describes and explains the behaviour of living organisms. Here the terms
'behaviour' and 'living organism' carry unusually wide meanings. Behaviour is
used to include all types of life activities and experiences—whether_gonative,
cognitive or affective, implicit or explicit, conscious, subconscious or unconscious
of a living organism. Also, the term living organism is employed to include all
living creatures inhabiting the earth irrespective of species, caste, colour, age, sex,
mental or physical state. Thus, the normal, the abnormal, the young and the old
belonging to different stock, spheres and walks of human life are all studiedby
this science. Moreover, studies in psychology are not confined to human
behaviour alone but they also encompass the behaviour of animals, insects, birds
and even plants.
In this way, wherever life exists and there are living organisms, Psychology
 PSYCHOIDC,Y
6 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL

We know that the

may be needed for the study of their activities and experiences.
and no limit can,
living organismsas well as their life activities are countless of Psychology.
therefore, be impoSedupon the fields of operation and application

BRANCHES AND FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

may be divided into
For the sake of convenienceand specialised study psychology namely, Pure
ifferent branches.First, we divide it into two broad categories,
Psychology and Applied Psychology.
the subject. Its
Pure psychologyprovides the framework and theory of
conte principles and theories and
assessment,
it also suggests various methods and techniques for the analysis,
modification and improvement of behaviour
pure
In applied psychology,the theo generated or enunciated through
psychoogy In s It practical expression.Here we discuss the application of
psychologicalrules, principles,theories and techniques wit re erence to real-life
situations.
above-mentionedpure and applied aspects of psychology can be further
grouped into various branches. Let us first consider some of the branches of pure
psychology.

BRANCHESOF PURE PSYCHOLOGY

eneral Psychology
This is a relativelylarge field of psychologywhich eals with the fundamental
rules rinci les and theories of Psychologyin relation to the stud of behaviour
of norm adult humanbeingsö5ucJt as

ormal Psychology
This is the branch of psychologywhich describesand explains the behaviour of
abnormalpeople in relation to their environment,The causes, symptoms and
syndromes,descriptionand treatment of the abnormalities of behaviour form the
subject matter of this branch.

OgøÉal Psychology
This branch of psychologydeals with group behaviour and
inter-relationships of
people among themselves. Group dynamics, likes and dislikes,
interests and
attitudes, social distance and prejudices of the people in their
personal and social
relationshipsare studied by this branch.

Perimental Psychology
This branch of psychology describes and explains the ways
and
means of carrying
out psychological experiments along scientific lines
under controlled or
 PSYCHOUX3Y-—MEANING,NA7VRE AND SCOPE
7
laboratory situations for the study of mental processes and behaviour.
It takes up
animals, birds and human beings as the subjects of these experiments.

Physiological Psychology
This branch of psychology describes and explains the biological and physio-
logical basis of behaviour. The internal environmentand physiologicalstructure
Ito of the body, particularly the brain, nervous system, and functioningof the glands
in relation to the conative, cognitive and affective behaviour of human beings
comprise its subject matter.
Its

kapsychology
This new branch of psychology deals with extra-sensory perception, precognition,
cases of claimed rebirth, telepathy and allied phenomena)

eopsychology
This branch or field of psychology describes and explains the (relationo! physical
environment, particularly weather, climate, soil, and landscape with behaviour')

Developmental Psychology (14OD

This branch or field of psychology describes and explains the processes and
products 6f growth and developmentin relation to the behaviour of an individual
from birth to old age. For added convenience,tit is further sub-dividedinto
branches such as Child Psychology, Adolescent Psychology and Adult Psychology.

BRANCHES OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

Educational Psychology
This is the branch of applied psychologywhich seeks to a I the s cholo ical
principles, theories and techniques to human behaviour in educational situations.
The subject matter of this branch covers psycho ogtca ways and means of
improving a aspects of the teaching—learningprocess including the learner, the
arning proce , learning material, learning environment and the teacher.

linical Psychology
This branch of applied psychology describes and explains the causes of mental
illness or abnormal behaviour of a atient attendin a clinic or osprta and
suggests In ual or group therap for the treatment and effective ad •ustmentof
the a ected person In society.

Industrial Psychology
This branch of applied psychology seeks application of the psychological
8 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOIDC,Y

pn_nciples,theories and techniques for the study of human behaviour in relation

to the industrial environment.\lt studies the topics and the ways and means of
ascertaining the tastes and interests of consumers, advertising and sale ofproducts,
selection, training and plæeRent of personnel, solution of labour problems,
establishment of harm6nious relations-between the employers and
strengthening the morale of the workers and increasing production etc.

Legal Psychology
It is the branch of applied psychology which studies the behaviour of clients,
criminals, witnesses etc. in their respective surroundings with the app ication of
psychological principles and techniques. It contains the subject matter for
improvrng of detection of crimes, identification and
apprehensionof false witnesses and other complex issues. The root causes of any
crime, offence, dispute or legal case can be proper y understood through the use
of this branch of psychology and subsequently proper corrective and rehabilitative
measures can be decided upon.

Military Psychology
This branch of psychology is concerned with the use of psychological principles
and techniques in the field of military activities. How to maintain the morale of
the soldiers and citizens during wartime, how to fight the enemy's propaganda and
intelligence activities, how to secure recruitmentof better personnel for the armed
forces, and how to improve the fighting capabilities and organizational climate
and leadership in the armed forces are some of the various topics that are dealt with
by this branch of psychology.

Political Psychology
This branch of psychology deals with the use of psychological principles and
techniques in studying politics and deriving political gains. The knowledge of the
dynamicsof group behaviour,judgment of public opinion, qualities of leadership,
psychology of propaganda and suggestion,the art of diplomacy etc. are some of
the key concepts that find place in the subject matter of Political Psychology.
In short, Psychology, by studying, explaining and understanding behaviour
has proved quite useful in many walks of our life. Its use and scope in our daily
life are varied. For instance, it has
1. contributed significantly to the improvement of the processes and
products of education;
2. highlighted the importanceof good behaviour to the patients, removed
a lot of superstitionsand provided valuable therapies_inthe field of
medicines;
3. underlined the importance of the knowledge of consumer psychology
and harmonious inter-personal relationship in the field of commerce and
industry;
4. helped in detection of crime and dealing with criminals;
 NATVREAND SCOPE
9
in relauon 5. proved useful to the leaders
means o and the politicians in
of leadershipfor leading the developingqualities
6. provided valuable help in
masses;
lems, relation to
as well as vocational counselling; guidance and educational, personal
mployees, 7. contributed substantially in
the field of military science for
the resources and operations; and improving
8. finally, it has helped human beings
to learn the art of understanding
their own behaviour, seeking adjustment
with themselves and with others,
f clients, and enhancing as well as actualizing
their potentialitiesto the full.
cation o
atter for SUMMARY
tion and
of any Psychology, defined first in its history of evolution as
the study of the soul has
the use been known progressively as the study of the mind,
study of
bilitative finally as the study of behaviour. Today, it is considered consciousnessand
as the science of
behaviour in its comprehensive meaning and covering all
types of behaviour of
all living organisms.
Psychology is quite scientific in nature. It believes in the
relationship of
cause and effect, uses observation, experimentationand other scientific
rinciples methods
for its study, possesses a universally accepted body of facts and
oraleof believes in
modification and alterations in its principles through future researches
and
findings. It is, however, not as perfect and developed a science as the other
e armed natural
and physical sciences. In fact, it is a developingbehaviouralsciencewhich is
climate in
the process of becoming as objective, exact and accurate as possible to come on
alt with par with the developed sciences.Therefore,it is termed as a developingpositive
science of behaviour.
The scope of psychology is very wide. It studies, describes and explains the
behaviour of all living organisms. As living organisms and their life activities are
es and countless, no limit-can be imposed upon the scope of this subject. It has many
branches and fields of study, like General Psychology, Abnormal Psychology,
of the
ership,
Social Psychology, Experimental Psychology, Physiological Psychology, Para-
me of psychology, Geo-psychology, Developmental Psychology, Clinical Psychology,
Industrial Psychology, Legal Psychology, Military Psychology, Political
logy
aviour
Psychology and so on.
daily
REFERENCES
s and Desiderato Otells, Howieson, D.B. and Jackson, J.H., Investigating Behaviour—
Principles of Psychology, New York: Harper & Row, 1976, p. 5.
noved
of James, W., Principles of Psychology, 2 vols., New York: Henry Holt, 1890.
Psychology, New York: Collier, 1962.
ology McDougall, W., Psychology—The study of behaviour, New York: Henry Holt,
e and 1912.
An Outline of Psychology, 13th ed., London: Methuen, 1949,p. 38.
10 ADVANCEDEDUCATIONALPSYCHOtDGY

Munn, N.L., Intmduction to Psychology, Delhi: 1967.

Pillsbury, W.B., Essentials of Psychology, New York: Macmillan, 1911.
Watson. J.B., Psychology as a behaviourist views it, Psycho. rev., vol. 20, 1913.
Psychologyfrom the Stand-point of a behaviourist, Philadelphia: J.B.
Lippincott, 1919.
Behaviourism, London: Kegan Paul, 1930.
Woodworth, R.S., Psychology, London: Methuen, 1945.
Contemporary Schools of Psychology, London: Methuen, 1948.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Guildford, J.B. (Ed.), Fields of Psychology, New York: Van Nostrand, 1966.
Keller, F.S., The Definitionsof Psychology, New York: Appleton Century, 1937.