Module 3 - Nervous and Endocrine Systems

MODULE 3

Nervous and Endocrine Systems

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO)

At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Identify the vital structures of the nervous and endocrine systems
2. Describe the functions of the structures of the nervous and endocrine systems

Recognition of Prior Knowledge

1. True or False? The brain is part of the Central Nervous System.
2. How fast can a nerve impulse travel?
a. Up to 10 meter/hour
b. Up to 40 meter/second
c. Up to 80 meter/hour
d. Faster than the speed of light
3. When native chickens rush to the farmer broadcasting cracked corn in his backyard,
which of the act is the stimulus?
a. Chickens rushing to the farmer
b. Farmer broadcasting the feed
c. Cracked corn
d. Backyard
4. What is the main component of a steroid hormone?
5. What is GF?

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Content Focus
The Nervous System
In this module you will study about the nervous system, the brain, the spinal cord and
the network of nerves and how they control the rapid activities of the body such as muscular
contraction, secretions of some endocrine glands, heart rate, respiration rate, gastro-intestinal
motility, etc. Your rapid reflex action to avoid danger is also due to the nervous system
activities. This system is so organized that each part of the body is connected to it.

As shown in Figure 16, the nervous system is divided into two, the central nervous
system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). This divides the coverage of the
nerves to work at, CNS on the head and the main skeletal framework while the PNS are found
in the peripheries.

http://apologeticspress.org/apPubPage.aspx?pub=1&issue=568&article=573

Fig. 16. The subdivisions of the nervous system

Functions of the Nervous System

1. It controls and coordinates the functioning of the body’s organ system and their interaction.
It is responsible to the animals’ sensations of its external environments and with
conscious and unconscious activities.
2. It controls and coordinates the activities of individual cells up to the complex behaviors of
the whole animal. It is where the animal hears, sees, or feels something, then takes a
course of action.
3. It arouses the animals’ instincts for survival like becoming thirsty, getting hungry,
becoming angry, and showing fear and sexual behaviors.
4. It regulates the secretions from the glands
5. It controls the movement of muscles

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The Central Nervous System (CNS)

The CNS is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. Together, they jointly
control the activities of the skeletal and smooth muscles of the body in response to stimuli in
their environment.

Parts of the Brain

1. Cerebrum
Functions
a. The seat of intelligence (memory, creativity, decision-making and reasoning)
b. Processes information from ears and is involved int he sense of hearing
c. Motor control to skeletal muscles
d. Sense of taste, smell, sight, and touch

2. Cerebellum
Functions
a. The center for sensory and motor coordination such as:
i. Coordination of voluntary movement
ii. Regulation of posture
iii. Maintenance of equilibrium

3. Midbrain/Medulla oblongata
Functions
a. Contains the control center for respiration
b. Controls heart rate
c. Controls blood supply
d. Regulation of body heat and some digestive processes

Spinal Cord
It is the main trunk for communication with the brain both sensory and motor
messages. It is protected from injury by the spinal column. It is covered by meninges
which are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Meninges of Brain and Spinal Cord

1. Dura mater - tough fibrous outer covering
2. Arachnoidea - resembles a spider web, at the middle
3. Pia matter - deepest of the meninges

Meningitis - infected meninges

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) - forms a cushion that protects brain and the spinal cord from
harm

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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The PNS is composed of the peripheral nerves outside of the central nervous system.
The cranial nerves arise from the cranium and its 12 nerves will receive stimulus (sensory) or
it will effect action (motor) or both.

Components of the Peripheral Nervous System

1. Cranial nerves - 12 pairs emerge from the brain

2. Spinal nerves - 31 pairs, emerge from the spinal cord

a. Afferent/sensory fibers - enter the spinal cord
Example: Olfactory nerve will receive sensory information and send them towards the
brain and smell will be identified
b. Efferent/motor fibers - innervates muscles and glands. Each muscle fiber is
controlled directly by branch from a motor neuron, usually under conscious control.
Example: Trochlear nerve will effect movements of the eyes

3. Both - Example: Trigerminal nerve will receive sensations of the head and face (sensory).
Also, this nerve affect chewing movements (motor).

Neuron
The neuron or nerve cell is the basic functional unit of the nervous system. It is
elongated having long processes, that brings information towards and away from each cell
body (Figure 17a).

Parts of a Neuron
1. Dendrites
Function: receive stimulus from the environment or the animal’s body and pass them towards
the cell body

2. Axon (nerve fiber)

Function: transmit impulses/messages away from the cell body to the next neuron.

Synapse - this part connects one neuron to the next neuron of the final destination for action
which are muscle cells. The synapse brings the information encoded in the action potential
(Fig. 17b). The synapse is around (200 A) Angstrom (1/196 inch), it is a small gap between
neurons where nerve impulses are transmitted from one nerve cell to another. Transmission is
the release of a neurotransmitter (mostly acetylcholine) from presynaptic neuron to
postsynaptic neuron which crosses the synaptic cleft and brings about a generation of signal
or initiation of impulse in the postsynaptic neuron.

The unique structure of neurons enables the nervous system to do its work in transmitting
electrical impulses from one part of the body to the other, at high speed. It is very much
faster than the usual flow of nutrients in the blood circulation or the passive transport between
tissues.

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a b
https://depositphotos.com/vector-images/synapse.html

Fig. 17. Structure of a neuron (a), the synapse (b)

Nerves have the property of excitability. Nerves develop action potentials and relay
it until it reaches where it intends to act. For example, when piglets see the caretaker filling
the feeding trough with feeds, action potentials are sent to the brain and messages are encoded
until you notice the skeletal muscles in the limbs moving towards the feed trough and
stimulate the pig to eat. The series of messages relayed is due to the transmission of
sustained action potentials developed at the sight of the feeds.

Classification of Neurons

1. Afferent (sensory) neurons - transmit nerve impulses from effector organ to the spinal cord
or brain;
2. Efferent (motor) neurons - transmit nerve impulses away from the brain or spinal cord to
or towards muscles or glands (effector organs);
3. Interneurons - conduct impulses from an afferent neuron within the central nervous system
(CNS)

Stimulus and Response

Stimulus refers to any change in the environment that causes the organism to react and
respond. Sensory nerves stimulate motor nerves to act. Examples are:

1. Dusty feed sniffed in by the pigs while it eats stimulate the production of mucus that traps
the dusts to protect the lungs.
2. Objects moving towards the eyes, stimulates the eyelids to blink or close the eyes
3. Unusual sound of a cellphone ringtone inside the layer house cause the release of
adrenaline and holds the eggs from being laid.

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The Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

Striated or skeletal muscles of the body are innervated by the somatic division of the
nervous system.
SNS brings about quickly adjustments of the muscles to changes in the environment.
It is a mechanism of the body to deter the animal from having further injury.
Example: reflex arc (some nerve impulses of this type travel at a rate of about 40
meters per second) (Fig. 18).

https://www.shutterstock.com/search/reflex+arc

Fig. 18. The reflex arc

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

The ANS is the part of the nervous system that regulates activity in viscera and other
structures not normally under voluntary control. The glands and visceral musculature of the
body receive efferent fibers from the autonomic nervous system and adjustments are made by
means of chemical mediators, acetylcholine, epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System

1. Sympathetic (thoracolumbar) - the nerve fibers arise from thoracic and lumbar regions
of the spinal cord, thus it is also called the thoracolumbar division of the ANS. This
system prepares the organism to meet a stress by producing a combination of physiologic
changes that increase available fuel molecules, blood flow to muscle, and cardiac output
while simultaneously decreasing digestive process. The summary of the effect of the
sympathetic stimulation is presented in Fig. 19.

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2. Parasympathetic (craniosacral) - the nerve fibers arise from midbrain, hindbrain and in
the sacral region of the spinal cord, hence it is also called craciosacral. In many
respects the opposite of the sympathetic division. The summary of the effect of the
parasympathetic stimulation is presented in Fig. 19.

https://salinachiropractic.com/chiropractic-info/services-and-techniques/nutrition/parasympathetic-dominance/

Fig. 19. The effects of the sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation on the different
organs of the body.

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Learning Activity - 3
Activity: Feeding animals
Instruction
1. Feed an animal, a pet, a flock of chickens, a goat or any animal available in your
neighborhood.
2. Observe how the animals behaved, responded when you feed them.
3. You must refrain from unnecessary noise/movements while doing the activity so that the
animals will perform normally.
4. Submit one photograph showing that you are feeding the animals.

Guide questions:

1. What did the animals do when feeds are served?

2. If you did not bring in feeds, will they get near the feeder?
3. In this activity, identify the stimulus and the response
4. How did the nervous system coordinate this movement?

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The Endocrine System

In this topic you will learn about the different endocrine glands and the hormones they
secrete and the effects of these hormones to their target organs.
The endocrine system is the collection of restricted areas or glands of an organism that
secrete hormones and transported through the circulatory system to distant target organs.
The functions of the endocrine system range from metabolism to growth; and in long term
behavior in conjunction with the nervous system in regulating internal functions and
maintaining homeostasis.

Hormone
Hormones are organic catalysts or chemical messengers that influence the growth and
development of the body and they are secreted by the endocrine glands. These glands do not
have ducts, thus hormones are transported by way of the blood passing through the gland that
absorbs the hormones and transports it to the target organ or tissue.
Hormones may be classified as simple protein, glycoprotein, and steroids (begins with
cholesterol as a substrate) but they all have common characteristics and functions as follows:

1. do not initiate reaction (excite or inhibit only)

2. effective in very minute quantities (biocatalytic amount)
3. hormones are destroyed in the process
4. some hormones exert their effect by participating in, or affecting enzymatically controlled
reaction in the animal.
5. some facilitate the passage of important metabolites across cell membranes.
6. hormones are not secreted in regular amounts; the amount of secretion depends on the
need of the animal.

Not all hormones have specific target organs, like the growth hormone, but for those
with specific target organs, the cells in the target organ contain receptors that specifically
recognize the hormone as shown in Fig. 20. Hormone receptors bind specific hormone and
directly or indirectly trigger a metabolic effect.

https://www.slideshare.net/jayswan/chapter-45-textbook-presentation

Fig. 20. Hormone - receptor complex

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The Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain (Fig. 21), it is important in regulating the
internal activities of the body. Although the hypothalamus constitutes less than 1 percent of
the total volume of the brain, it has an important influence on many of the body's functions,
including sexual behavior, emotions, hormone production, and the autonomic nervous system.
The hypothalamus regulates hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature, sexual drive, and other
functions.
The hypothalamus also receives nerve inputs from the erogenous zones (the genitalia
and nipples), the viscera (internal organs), and the limbic system (concerned with motivation
and drive).

Fig. 21. The limbic system, wherein hypothalamus is part of it.

Table 10. Hormone Secreted by the Hypothalamus

Hormone Chemical Class Principal Functions
Gonadotropic Releasing Decapeptide  Stimulates release of FSH and LH from the
Hormone (GnRH) anterior pituitary gland

Dopamine Biogenic amine  Inhibits release of prolactin

Corticotropic Releasing Peptide  Stimulates ACTH release
Hormone (CRH)
Growth Hormone - Releasing Peptide  Stimulates release of growth hormone (GH)
Hormone (GNRH)
Growth Hormone - Inhibiting  Inhibits release of GH
Hormone
MSH - Releasing Hormone  Stimulates release of MSH (melanocytes
(MRH) stimulating hormone)
Thyroid - Stimulating  Stimulates release of TSH and Prolactin
Hormone Releasing Hormone
(TRH)
Dopamine - Prolactin Inhiting  Inhibits prolacting release
Hormone (PIH)
Oxytocin and antidiuretic Octapeptide  See hormones secreted by the
hormone synthesized in the Neurohypophysis
hypothalamus, stored and
released from
neurohypophysis

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The Endocrine Glands

Hypophysis or Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland, is a master endocrine gland in vertebrate animals. The hormones
secreted by the pituitary stimulate and control the functioning of almost all the other
endocrine glands in the body.
The pituitary is a small bean-shaped, reddish-gray organ located in the saddle-shaped
depression (sella turcica) in the floor of the skull (the sphenoid bone) and attached to the base
of the brain by a stalk (Fig. 22); it is located near the hypothalamus. The pituitary has two
lobes in humans — the anterior lobe, or adenohypophysis, and the posterior lobe, or
neurohypophysis—which differ in structure and function. However, in lower forms of
animals, the intermediate lobe is will developed and functional. It plays a role in the
pigmentation of the skin to serve as camouflage or jibe with its environment.

Fig. 22. The Pituitary gland

The Hormones Secreted by the Pituitary Gland

Notice that there one or more names for a certain hormone

Table 11. Hormone Secreted by the Anterior Pituitary Lobe

Hormone Chemical Principal Functions
Class
Growth Hormone/  Promotes growth in immature animals
Somatotropin/  Metabolic effects on carbohydrates,
Somatotrophic Hormone lipids, protein metabolism in adults

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)/ Glycoprotein  Stimulates follicle growth

Follicotropin  Stimulates estrogen production
 Spermatogenesis in male

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)/ Glycoprotein  Stimulates ovulation

Interstitial cell stimulating hormone  Support corpus luteum (CL) formation
(ICSH)/  Progesterone, estrogen and androgen
Luteotropin secretion
 Stimulates testosterone synthesis by
leydig cells of testis

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Prolactin (PRL) Protein  Stimulates milk synthesis (promotes

Luteotropin Hormone (LTH) lactation)
 Stimulates CL function
 Stimulates progesterone secretion in
some species
 Regulate metabolism for milk
synthesis
 Effects of maternal behavior

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)/  Stimulates release of thyroxine (T4)

Thyrotropic Hormone

Melanin Stimulating Hormone  Regulates pigment of cells

(MSH)/
Intermedin

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Protein  Release of corticosteriods and

(ACTH) glucocorticoids from the adrenal
cortex

Hormones secreted by the Posterior Pituitary Lobe (Neurohypophysis)

Oxytocin Octapeptide  Stimulates milk-ejection in lactating
females
 Stimulates uterine or myometrial
contraction
 Aids in sperm and egg transport

Antidiuritic Hormone (ADH)  Important in conserving body water

(produce in the hypothalamus) by reducing urine formation
 Constricts vessels (arterioles) to raise
blood pressure

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is located at the neck area just below the larynx (Fig. 23). It consists
of two lobes connected to each other by a bridge of tissue called isthmus. The thyroid gland is
not essential for life, but in its absence, there is poor resistance to cold, mental and physical
slowing and in children (mental retardation and dwarfism [cretinism]) may occur. However,
excess of thyroid secretion leads to body wasting, nervousness, tachycardia, tremor and
excess heat production.

Table 12. Hormones Secreted by the Thyroid Gland

Hormone Chemical Class Principal Functions
Thyroxine (T4)/  Accelerates oxygen consumption, ATP
Thyroid Hormone generation in almost all cells

Calcitonin/  Promotes calcium retention in bones

Thyrocalcitonin (CT)

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https://thyroiduk.org/the-basics/the-thyroid-gland/

Fig. 23. The thyroid gland

The Parathyroid Gland

The parathyroid gland is any group of glandular cell aggregations located in the neck
region close to the thyroid gland in lizards, some birds, and most mammals. In humans, four
clumps are usually present as distinct, yellowish-brown, encapsulated organs. They are
located beneath the thyroid gland (Fig. 24); one or more of them are occasionally embedded
in the thyroid tissue.

https://www.organsofthebody.com/parathyroid-glands/

Fig. 24. The parathyroid gland

Table 13. Hormones Secreted by the Parathyroid Gland

Hormone Chemical Class Principal Functions
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)  Increases plasma calcium
 Reduces plasma phosphate

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The Adrenal Gland

The adrenal gland is a vital endocrine gland that secretes hormones into the
bloodstream, situated, in humans, on top of the upper end of each kidney (Fig. 25). The two
parts of the gland—the inner portion, or medulla, and the outer portion, or cortex—are like
separate organs: They are composed of different types of tissue and perform different
functions.

https://www.shutterstock.com/search/adrenal+gland

Fig. 25. The adrenal glands are on top of the kidneys

Table 14. Hormones Secreted by the Adrenal Cortex

Hormone Chemical Class Principal Functions
Glucocorticoids (cortisols) Steroid  Stimulates conversion of protein into
carbohydrates for energy generation
(gluconeogenesis)
 Decrease inflammatory and immunologic
response
 Induction of parturition by fetus
 Milk synthesis
 Essential for normal response to stress

Mineralocorticoids  Conserve Na and eliminate K

(aldosterone)
Hormones Secreted by the Adrenal Medulla
Epinephrine, norepinephrine,  Augment sympathetic response to stress by
and dopamine actions on several organs
 Prepare for emergencies
 Mobilize energy
 Activate adenyl cyclase

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The Pancreas

The pancreas is located at the duodenal loop of the small intestine (Fig. 26). It is both
an exocrine and endocrine glands. It functions as exocrine gland, when its acinar cells secrete
pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes, and endocrine gland, when the cells of the
islets of langerhans (Fig. 26b) secrete hormones.

b
a

https://webpath.med.utah.edu/ENDOHTML/ENDO032.html

Fig. 26. The pancreas (a) at the duodenal loop of the small intestine, the islets of langerhans
(enclosed with white circles) (b).

Table 15. Hormones Secreted by the Islets of Langerhans

Hormone Chemical Class Principal Functions
Somatostatin  Inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion
 Reduce activity of the Gastro Intestinal (GI)
tract

Hormones secreted by the α (alpha) cells of the Islets of Langerhans

Glucagon  Increase blood sugar, counter insulin
 Promotes glycogenolysis, and
gluconeogenesis by the liver

Hormones secreted by the β (beta) cells of the Islets of Langerhans

Insulin  Promotes glucose uptake, protein and lipid
synthesis by various tissues, organs
including skeletal muscles, liver, and
adipose tissue

The Ovary

The ovary (Fig. 27), usually in pair are the principal sex organs of the female. It is
held by the broad ligament in the pelvic cavity. It’s not the ovaries per se that produce
hormone, it is the graafian follicle (GF), which in turn becomes the corpus luteum (CL) after
the ovum has been released.

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https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/describe-the-internal-structure-of-human-ovary/

Fig. 27. The ovary producing GF

Table 16. Hormones Secreted by the Graafian Follicle

Hormone Chemical Class Principal Functions
Estrogen/ Estradiol Steroid  Mating behavior (estrus)
 Secondary sex characteristics development
 Maintenance of female duct system
 Mammary growth and development
 Growth of the reproductive tract
 Uterine contraction
 Controls gonadotropin release
 Stimulates calcium uptake in bones
 Has anabolic effect

Inhibin (Folliculostatin) Protein  Regulates release of FSH from anterior

pituitary gland

Hormones secreted by the Corpus Luteum (CL)

Progestin / Progesterone
Steroid  Maintenance of pregnancy
 Mammary growth and development
 Acts synergistically with estrogen in
promoting estrous behaviour and preparing
reproductive tract for implantation
 Stimulates endometrial secretion
 Controls gonadotropin secretions

Relaxin Polypeptide  Expansion of pelvis

 Dilation of cervix

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Testis (testicle)

Testis, also called testicle (Fig. 28), one of a pair of male sex glands that produce
sperm cells. Testes are present in most animals. In backboned animals the testes produce male
sex hormones, called androgens, as well as sperm.
In man the sex hormone produced by the testis is testosterone, which controls the
growth of the male reproductive system and stimulates the development of the male
secondary sexual characteristics, such as the growth of the beard, the deepening of the voice,
and the male contours of the body. It also influences male sexual behavior.

a b

Frandson, R.D. et al. 7th Ed. https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/565905509425229656/?nic_v2=1a4fUxuCe

Fig. 28. The testis of a horse enclosed with a red circle (a) and the seminiferous tubule where
the hormone producing cells are located

Table 17. Hormones Secreted by the Leydig cells

Hormone Chemical Class Principal Functions
Androgens/ Testosterone Steroid  Male mating behavior
 Spermatogenesis
 Maintenance of male duct system and
accessory glands

Hormones secreted by the Sertoli cells

Inhibin Protein  Regulates release of FSH

Various Endocrine Glands

Table 18. Hormones Secreted by the Various Endocrine Glands

Hormone Chemical Class Principal Functions
Hormones Secreted by the Placenta
Human Chorionic Glycoprotein  LH-like, involved in the establishment of
Gonadtropin (HCG) pregnancy in human
 Support and maintain CL

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Hormones Secreted by the Endometrial Cups in Mare

Equine Chorionic Glycoprotein  FSH-like some LH activity
Gonadotropin (ECG)  Immunological protection of foal during
Old name: Pregnant Mare pregnancy formation accessory CL in mare
Serum Gonadotropin (PMSG)

Estrogens and Steroids  Regulate placental blood flow

Progestins  Maintenance of pregnancy

Placental Lactogen Glycoprotein  Stimulate mammary growth and milk

secretion
Hormones Secreted by the Uterine Endometrium, Graafian Follicles and Seminal
Vesicles
Prostaglandin F2 α Eicosanoid (lipid)  Regression of CL
 Stimulate myometrial contractions
 Ovulation function
 Sperm transport
 Implicate regulation of blood vessels
diameter, inflammation, blood clotting,
uterine contraction during parturition

Inhibin  Inhibits FSH release

Relaxin  Dilate cervix, may function in ovulation

Hormones Secreted by the Liver
Insulin-like Growth Factors Protein  Stimulates steroidogenesis
IGF-I and IGF-II  Stimulates mammary growth and fetal
development

Hormones Secreted by the Duodenal Mucusa

Secretin  Stimulates flow of pancreatic NaHCO3
solution
 Releases bile
 Inhibits secretion of other hormones from
the stomach
Pancreozymin/  Increases enzymes in pancreatic secretion
Cholescystokinin (CCK)  Stimulates contraction of gall bladder

Gastric Inhibiting Peptide  Decreases gastric motility and secretion

(GIP)  Increases insulin secretions by pancreas

Hormones Secreted by the Stomach Mucusa

Vasoactive Intestinal  Increases blood flow through digestive
Polypeptide (VIP) organs
 Decreases gastric secretion

Gastrin  Stimulates secretion of Hydrochloric Acid

(HCL), pepsinogen and intrinsic factor (IF)

Hormones Secreted by the Pineal Gland

Melatonin Biogenic amine  Control of seasonal reproduction in mare
and ewe
 Regulate hair growth

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Review Questions
This review questions will help you assess the extent of your understanding of the topics in this
module. Answer them honestly. You must get 80% score or better. God bless you.

Matching Exercises (Organ:secretion or vice versa)

______1. Testosterone a. Adenohypophysis

______2. Insulin b. Testes
______3. Somatotropin c. Thyroid
______4. Neurotransmitter d. Pancreas
______5. TSH e. Nerve

True or False

_______1. Adrenaline is responsible for the “fight, fright, flight” response of an individual during
emergency situation.
_______2. Neurology is a branch of physiology dealing with coordination of various body tissues by
chemical mediators produced by ductless glands.
_______3. The somatic motor division of the peripheral nervous system controls skeletal muscle.
_______4. The cerebellum is involved in language, decision making, and conscious thought. It is also
the site of long-term memory storage.
_______5. The autonomic motor division of the PNS controls automatic functions and helps to
maintain homeostasis.

Fill in the blanks

1. __________ is a junction between two neurons.

2. The CNS is composed of the ___________ and the ____________.
3. The hormone properly called _______________ is also commonly known as adrenaline.
4. The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete hormones into the __________.
5. ____________ carries the output of the central nervous system to the tissues and organs of the body.

Identification

_______________1. It raises blood glucose levels.

_______________2. It contains areas that control blood pressure and respiration.
_______________3. It provides information to the central nervous system.
_______________4. Its principal function is to stimulate the conversion of protein into carbohydrates
for energy during stressful situation.
_______________5. It causes the hen to brood her newly hatched chicks.

Short Answer (maximum of 30 words only)

Why drank cowboys mumble when they talk and unstable when they walk?

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 Module 3 - Nervous and Endocrine Systems

Self Reflect
Write what you have learned on this third module. Focus on your knowledge gained,
skills to be developed, and proper attitude towards studying nervous and endocrine systems.
See you on the next module.

Knowledge gained:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

Skills to be developed:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.

Attitude towards studying nervous and endocrine systems:

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.

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References
Flanders, F.B. 2012. Exploring Animal Science. Delmar Cengage Learning.

Frandson, R.D. Wilke, W.L. and Fails, A.D. n.d. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals.
7th Edition. Wiley-Blackwell.

Johnson, M.D. n.d. Human Biology Concepts and Current Issues. 4th Edition. Benjanmin
Cummings Publishing.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

https://www.slideshare.net/jayswan/chapter-45-textbook-presentation

http://apologeticspress.org/apPubPage.aspx?pub=1&issue=568&article=573

https://depositphotos.com/vector-images/synapse.html

https://www.shutterstock.com/search/reflex+arc

https://salinachiropractic.com/chiropractic-info/services-and-techniques/nutrition/parasympat
hetic-dominance/

https://www.slideshare.net/jayswan/chapter-45-textbook-presentation

https://thyroiduk.org/the-basics/the-thyroid-gland/

https://www.organsofthebody.com/parathyroid-glands/

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https://webpath.med.utah.edu/ENDOHTML/ENDO032.html

https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/describe-the-internal-structure-of-human-ovary/

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/565905509425229656/?nic_v2=1a4fUxuCe

AnSci 111 - Introduction to Animal Science 60