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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN MINDANAO

Course Outline
I. Introduction
A. Agricultural development
B. Origin, domestication and history of some important crops
Crop Science 121 C. World food situation and centers of production
D. Philippine agriculture
PRINCIPLES OF CROP E. Major crops of the Philippines and their geographic
distribution
PRODUCTION F. Meaning and scope of Crop Science as a science, art and
business
II. Physiological Processes Affecting Crop Production
A. Photosynthesis
B. Respiration

C. Transpiration
D. Translocation
E. Mineral Nutrition
F. Growth and Development
G. Plant movements
H. Crop adaptation I. Introduction
III. Factors Affecting Crop Production
A. Abiotic factors
B. Biotic factors
IV.
A. Land Preparation
B. Pest Management

A. History of Agriculture (Development of Agriculture) Man’s first attempts at agriculture can be traced
back to about 10,000 years ago, when he first
1. Ancient Agriculture domesticated animals and fowls.

Before the development of agriculture, primitive The first crop plantings were made by digging
man got his food by hunting, fishing and gathering the earth with pointed sticks. Gradually, these
wild plants. When the food supply was exhausted in pointed sticks were tipped with bones, then replaced
one area, he moved to another. by metals.
When domestication of animals and plants insured
a steady source of food, the primitive man stopped
wandering and settled down in one place.

1

About 3,000 B.C, the Egyptians used the
primitive hoes which were replaced by plows with
ropes harnessed and pulled steadily by man. With
available domesticated animals, man later learned to
use the oxen to pull the plow.
Archaeological findings suggested that the first
successful domestication of plants was in Thailand
where remnants of rice and soybeans from 10,000
years ago were discovered.
Improved cultural methods doubtless followed
observations made by primitive farmers.
They found better crops in;
1. spots where manure, ashes or broken
limestone had been dropped
2. where weeds are not allowed to grow
3. where the soil was dark, deep and well-
watered
4. when one crop followed certain other
crops.
Among the prominent Englishmen who
contributed to the development of modern
agriculture were:
1. Jethro Tull (1674-1741) – published a book
entitled Horsehoeing Husbandry, principles of
row crop cultivation
- Father of modern tillage
2. Arthur Young (1741-1820) – published the annals
of agriculture in 46 volumes
3. Robert Hooke (1635-1703) – who first describe
the plant cells
4. Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) – illustrated genetic
inheritance by using garden pea.
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The primitive husbandmen removed by hand the
destructive insects in their fields or practiced mystic
rites to drive away the evil spirits they believed to be
the cause of plant diseases.
With advancing civilization, materials such as
sulfur, brine, white-wash soap and vinegar were
applied to plants to suppress diseases or insects.
2. Scientific and Modern Agriculture
Scientific agriculture had its beginning in
England in the 18th century. The British first
established botanical gardens in England in 1720 and
Africa at the later part of 19th century.
5. John Bennet Lawes & Joseph Henry Gilbert
– first agricultural researchers
6. Louis Pasteur- found that microorganism
causes diseases.
In the last quarter of 18th century, the U.S
agricultural technology and research was improved
vastly and created the “Agricultural revolution”.
The Beginning Of Mechanized Farming.
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3. Development of Philippine Agriculture

By the 1920’s, the U.S experienced a tremendous
increase in corn and other crop yields as a result of
high technology agriculture which include increased
fertilizer and pesticide use, improved irrigation, more
productive cultivars, improved cultural practices and
shifting of many crops to more productive areas.
The aboriginal people in the Philippines (Pygmies or
Negritos) who came to the Philippines from Central Asia,
25,000 years ago were not agriculturists. They wandered from
place to place and derived their food from hunting, fishing and
gathering wild fruits.
Stages of Development

The 1960’s became known as the decade of
“Green Revolution” when increased in yield was
repeated for some grain crops.
a. Pre-colonial period
The second migrants to the Philippines, Indo-Malayan
who came from Southeastern Asia 5,000 years ago, brought
with them wet-rice agriculture and carabao was also used as
source of animal power for cultivation. This type of
agriculture predominated near bodies of water like rivers and
lakes.

Kaingin farming or slash and burn predominated b. Colonial period

other areas. This indicated shifting agriculture rather Plants that were introduced include mulberry,
than sedentary type of rice culture and the tribe were cocoa, wheat, cucumber, watermelon, coffee, new
mainly nomadic (roaming about from place to place varieties of cereals, peas and other vegetables.
aimlessly).

The development of haciendas allowed for the

The pattern of agriculture was chiefly introduction of technological innovations in
subsistence. Farms were small, chiefly backyard in production and processing. e.g steam or hydraulic-
coastal and riverbank settlements. powered sugar mills

Problems of Philippine Agriculture

c. Post-war period
Introduction of technological improvements
Physical
1950’s – campaign for use of modern farm inputs and (a) Climate-typhoons
farm mechanization (b) Soil-loss of top soil
1960’s – building up of markets for tractors and Biological
power tillers (a) Insect pests
- establishment of IRRI (b) Diseases
- introduction of high yielding varieties (c) Weeds
(d) Physiological disorders such as nutrient deficiencies
Further development and expansion of (e) Genetic make-up of different crops
international agriculture trading

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Socio-economic
(a) Family profile – low farm income
(b) Community profile – inadequate support services
for optimum production
(c) Government support – inadequate incentives for
efficient and effective agricultural production
3. Corn
Zea mays originated from Mexico. The wild form
of corn were widespread over the highlands of
Mexico and probably over Central and South America.
4. Rice
Oryza sativa is thought to have been
domesticated in India more than 4,000 years ago from
the wild species of Oryza perennis.
Vegetable crops
1. Green bean and lima bean – native to tropical
America
2. Eggplant – also known as eggfruit, aubergine or
guinea squash
- native to South and Eastern Asia
3. Muskmelon – originated in Asia, particularly in
Iran and India
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B. Origin, domestication and history of important crops
1. Soybean
Originated from China where its close relative
and likely progenitor , Lysine ussuriensis (wild
soybean) is abundant.
2. Sorghum
Originated from Abyssinia (Northeast Africa) and
were probably first domesticated about 3-4000 B.C in
Africa around Ethiopia by the Cushites.
Origin and domestication of other important crops
Oil crops
1. Peanut – Native to South America and was
introduced to Africa where along with bananas, it
forms a large scale part of the diet of the people.
2. Coconut – It have a center of diversity in the
north-west South America, which has been suggested
as the area in which coconut was domesticated.
4. Okra – also called gumbo, gobo or lady’s finger
is either Asian or African in origin.
5. Tomatoes- native to tropical Central and South
America
- its wild progenitor is thought to have been
the cherry tomato which now grows in the wild
in Peru-Ecuador area
6. Asparagus- native to Southern Russia
7. Onion- an ancient crop thought to have been
domesticated in Central Asia
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Tropical Fruits 3.Mango- originated in the India-Bangladesh- Burma

region and had been spread into cultivation and
common use in the Indian sub-continent by 2,000
1. Banana- originated in Southeast Asia, spreading B.C.
to India, Africa and finally to tropical America
4.Pineapple- originated from tropical regions of
2. Citrus- original home of citrus is not known with South America
certainty. The crop is of tropical origin, it is now
cultivated more extensively in the subtropics with 5.Papaya- originated in Central America
Mediterranean climate.

• Major Crops of the Philippines and their geographic distribution COMMODITY 1 2 3 4 5

COMMODITY 1 2 3 4 5 CEREALS AND ROOT

CROPS
FRUITS 1. Rice Central Luzon Western Visayas Southern Tagalog Cagayan Valley Ilocos Region
1. Banana Southern Mindanao Central Mindanao CARAGA Cagayan Valley Western Visayas 2. Corn Southern Mindanao Central Mindanao Northern Mindanao Central Visayas Cagayan Valley
Ilocos Region 3. Cassava ARMM Bicol Western Mindanao Central Visayas Eastern Visayas
2. Mango Cagayan Valley Southern Tagalog Western Visayas Southern Mindanao 4. Sweet Potato Bicol Eastern Visayas Central Visayas CARAGA Southern Tagalog
Northern Mindanao Cagayan Valley
3. Pineapple Southern Mindanao Southern Tagalog Bicol Region
Cagayan Valley
4. Citrus Southern Mindanao CARAGA GRAIN LEGUMES
(Pumelo) Southern Tagalog Cagayan Valley ARMM Southern Tagalog 1. Mongo Ilocos Region Central Luzon Western Visayas Cagayan Valley Central Visayas
ARMM Southern Mindanao Western Visayas 2. Peanut Cagayan Valley Ilocos Region Southern Tagalog Western Visayas Central Visayas
(Calamondin) Bicol Region Central Luzon Central Mindanao
5. Durian Western Visayas CARAGA
CUTFLOWERS
1. Gladiolus CAR Southern Tagalog Central Visayas Central Mindanao Cagayan Valley
2. Rose CAR Central Visayas Western Visayas Southern Mindanao Central Mindanao
3.Chrysanthemum CAR Central Visayas Southern Mindanao Western Visayas Bicol Region
4. Anthurium CAR Southern Mindanao Western Visayas Southern Tagalog Central Mindanao
5. Orchids Western Visayas Southern Mindanao Southern Tagalog Central Visayas Western Mindanao
VEGETABLES
1. Eggplant Ilocos Region Central Luzon Southern Tagalog Central Visayas Western Visayas
2. Tomato Ilocos Region Central Luzon Southern Tagalog Central Visayas Western Visayas
3. Cabbage CAR Southern Mindanao Central Visayas Northern Mindanao Central Luzon
Ilocos Region Cagayan Valley
4. Onion Central Luzon Southern Tagalog Southern Tagalog Bicol Region Eastern Visayas OTHERS
5. Garlic Ilocos Region Northern Mindanao Central Luzon Southern Mindanao Western Visayas Coconut Southern Mindanao Southern Tagalog Bicol Region Northern Mindanao Western Mindanao
6. Potato CAR Central Visayas Central Mindanao Coffee Southern Mindanao Northen Mindanao Southern Tagalog ARMM Western Visayas
Sugar cane Western Visayas Southern Mindanao Central Luzon Central Visayas Northern Mindanao
Abaca Eastern Visayas Bicol Region Northern Mindanao ARMM Southern Mindanao

C. World food situation

World population is increasing at the rate of 2%

per year. At this rate, it doubles every 30-35 years,
The demand for food will also increase.

Estimated population as of March 2024 (8.09 billion).

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Table 1. Comparison of Developing and Developed areas Table 2. Food producing capacity in relation to population
Country Population Density Arable Land
(Persons/HA.) Ha./person)
Congo 37.5 3.60
Developing Developed
Canada 12.5 2.26
Population 2/3 of total 1/3 of total Australia 7.5 2.10

Population growth 2-3% per year 1.5% per year Argentina 47.5 1.50

Per capita income Calories $100 per year $1,000 per year USA 122.5 1.09

USSR 60.0 1.09

and starchy vegetables 65-80% of total 25-50% of total India 825.0 0.32

Italy 1090.0 0.32

High protein food like 9-23 kg/year 40-136 kg/year United Kingdom 1375.0 0.12

meat, fish etc. China 450.0 0.12

Netherlands 2200.0 0.08

Agriculture land per capita 0.4 hectare 0.8 hectare
Japan 1625.0 0.08

Pop. In agriculture 60-90% of total 2-25% of total Arable Land:

Capital input for low high If greater than 1.0 ha. – food supply adequate
agriculture If greater than 0.40 to 1.0 – 80% self sufficient
If less than 0.4 – vegetable diet, importation of food required for
adequate diet

Meaning and Scope of Crop Science

Definition of terms
• Plant – any organism belonging to the kingdom plantae,
lacking of active locomotion and has the ability to
manufacture its own food.
• Crop Science
deals with the observation and classification of
knowledge concerning economically cultivated plants
and the establishment of verifiable principles regarding
their growth and development.

• Crop- domesticated/cultivated plant or plant with

economic value. It denotes plant under cultivation

Crop production as a science, art and business

2. Horticulture- the study and cultivation of fruits
• Crop production- is the cultivation of crops that are (Pomology), vegetables (Olericulture), flowers
utilized by man for any purpose in order to survive. Crop (Floriculture), nursey management and landscape
production could simply mean, the management of gardening.
useful plants.
-the term is derived from 2 Latin words “hortos” means
Two disciplines of crop production garden and “cultura” means to cultivate.
1. Agronomy- deals with the principles and practices of
field crop production and soil management.
- The term derived from 2 Greek words: “agros” means
field and “nomos” or to manage

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• As a science
• As an art
it is an art because it requires skills to produce crops
Modern crop production is not based on even if one has little or no scientific training.
guess-work or trial and error method.

The art of crop science reaches its greatest

Its science is derived from the application or
adoption of the basic sciences of chemistry,
mathematics, physics and from various applied
sciences like physiology, meteorology, anatomy,
plant breeding and etc.
expression in horticulture specifically in ornamental
horticulture where plants are raised for their aesthetic
qualities (e.g. floral arts and landscaping).

Development of Crop Science

• As a business
• Man’s need for raw materials required to meet their
plants are not grown simply to satisfy the needs of basic needs of food, clothing and shelter and the
man but to realize some profits in the process of increasing requirements of the processing and food
producing it. Thus, maximization of output relative to industry have served as incentives to further improve
production input is one of the guiding principles of crop production practices.
production.
• Early recognition of the importance of agricultural
Scientific knowledge about plants is utilized so that research was made by the British empire by the
they are produced at the time when the demand and establishment of agricultural research stations. Similarly,
the best prices could be obtained when sold. the U.S experiment stations were established upon
establishment of land-grant state colleges.

• In the Philippines, agricultural research has been
establish through schools and experiment stations,
both private and public such as:
1. State Colleges and Universities of Agriculture
2. Department of Agriculture Research Network
3. Commodity Research Centers
CRDI- Cotton Research and
Development Institute
PTRTC- Philippine Tobacco Research and Training
Center
FPRDI- Forest Product Research and Development
Institute
PRRI – Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice)
4. Specialized Research Centers
IPB- Institute of Plant Breeding
NCPC- National Crop Protection
Center

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Contribution of related sciences to crop production

NPGRL- National Plant Genetic
Resources Laboratory
FSSRI- Farming Systems and Soils
Research Institute
4. International Research Organization
IRRI- International Rice Research Institute
CIMMYT- Centro International de Meyoramiente
de Maize Y Trigo
CIP- Centro International de Patatas
• Some scientific fields and areas of knowledge related to
crop production are the following:
1. Crop Breeding and Genetics - concerned with the
improvement of the inherent or heritable properties of
crops.
2. Botany – concerned with plant structures, processes and
relationships among plants as well as their environment.

3. Soil Science- study of the nature and properties of soils,
fundamental principles upon which proper soil management
is based.
4. Plant Pathology and Entomology- concerned with insect
pests, pathogens, their nature and their control.
5. Agricultural Engineering - concerned with farm
structures, farm machinery, water management and waste
disposal.
6. Agricultural Economics- concerned with the economics of
the production and marketing of agricultural products.
7. Agricultural meteorology- concerned with the study of
weather and climate. The study of meteorology enables one
to do weather forecasting and thus help the farmer
minimize losses due to bad weather.

Plant Structure, Groupings and

Classification
• The Plant Structure
the plant body can be divided into:
- below ground part (roots)
- above ground part (shoot)

Two types of root systems

1. fibrous roots- composed of numerous roots that are
of similar sizes with no central primary root and it
makes shallow penetration in the soil. e.g. monocot
(Rice, wheat, maize, marigold, banana, coconut
grasses)

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Plant Structure, Groupings and

Classification
2. tap root – composed of one central primary root and
several branches and it has deep penetration in the
soil.
e.g. dicots (legumes, hibiscus, mustard, carrot,
beetroot, parsley, china rose)

Roots can also be classified based on their functions

1. storage roots
2. brace roots
3. aquatic roots
4. aerial roots

Plant Structure, Groupings and Plant Structure, Groupings and

Classification
Functions of root systems
1. anchorage of the plant into the soil
2. absorption of water and nutrients
3. for plant propagation in some crops
4. storage of water and carbohydrates
(cactus, cassava, sweet potato)
Shoot- above ground parts of the plant with
phototrophic response. It has several appendages
(components)
Classification
Stem - the main axis of the plant usually growing
upward or vertically.
External structure of the stem
1. apical bud – most active growing point found at
the stem apex.
2. axillary bud- growing point found at the leaf axil
3. lateral bud- growing point found at the side of
the stem.
4. leaf scar- remnant of fallen leaf
5. node and internode- section that run along
alternately in the stem.

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Plant Structure, Groupings and Classification

Functions of the stem
1. for support- holds the branches, leaves, flowers and
fruits
2. for conduction of water from the roots to the leaves
3. for conduction of food from the leaves to other
parts of the plant
Modified stems
1. rhizomes – horizontal underground stems with
nodes, internodes, buds and scaly leaves. It maybe
compressed or fleshy.
e.g. ginger, turmeric, banana, asparagus, bermuda grass,
cogon, aguingay

Plant Structure, Groupings and Classification Tuber

2. stolons- slender stem that grow horizontally along the
ground (e.g. strawberry).
3. tuber- greatly enlarged fleshy portion of an
underground stem (e.g. radish, potato, cassava, yam,
turnips, beets, sweet potato).
4. corm- short bulky stem which contain stored food and
several buds (e.g. banana, gabi, leek, begonia).
5. bulb – made up of short stems and fleshy leaves. e.g.
Onion, Garlic, Shallots, Tulips.
6. sucker- young plant arising from the base of the mother
plant. (e.g. banana, pineapple, bamboo, blackberry).

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Corm

Bulb

Sucker Plant Structure, Groupings and Classification

Leaf – lateral outgrowth of plant which is usually thin,

expanded and green due to the pigment chlorophyll.

Functions of leaf
1. organ of photosynthesis
2. organ of transpiration
3. organ of propagation
4. storage of water (cactus)

Flower- highly modified shoot which plays an

important role in the reproduction of plants.

Leaf Venation

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Plant Structure, Groupings and Classification Plant Structure, Groupings and Classification

Types of flower
Parts of a Flower
1. Complete or Perfect flower- flowers that have
sepals, petals, stamen and pistil even if they lack 1. essential parts
calyx or corolla (apple, cherry, orchids, rose)
a. stamen- male flower
2. Incomplete flower- lacks one or more of this anther
part. filament
- pistillate or female flower (lacks stamen). pollen grains
- staminate or male flower (lacks pistil).
b. pistil- female flower
dioecious- male and female flower found in
separate plants (papaya, yam, spinach, mulberry). stigma
style
monoecious- having male and female sex organ in the
same plant (corn, banana, coconuts and cucurbits) ovary
ovule

Plant Structure, Groupings and Classification Plant Structure, Groupings and Classification

2. accessory parts
sepals
petals
receptacle
peduncle
d. Fruit- refers to the mature ovary and other
flower parts
1. single fruit- has a single ovary and it can be
fleshy or dry
e.g. tomato, grape, peanuts, rice, corn, citrus,
melons, apple

Plant Structure, Groupings and Classification

2. aggregate fruit- derived from flower that have

many pistil on a common receptacle
e.g. strawberry, blackberry, raspberry
3. multiple fruit- derived from many separate but
closely clustered flowers
e.g. pineapple, mulberry, jackfruit, breadfruit

e. Seed- a miniature plant in an arrested state

- a mature ovule (botanically)

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Plant Structure, Groupings and Classification

Three main parts of the seed

1. embryo- minute plant produce from the union of
male and female gametes

2. endosperm- stored food used to support the

embryo during seed germination

3. seed coat or testa- outer covering of the seed,

derived from the integuments of the ovule

Plant Structure, Groupings and Classification Classification of Crop Plants

Process of seed development
1. pollination- transfer of pollen grain from the anther
to the stigma of a flower
2. fertilization (double fertilization)
- union of male gamete with the egg cell to form
the embryo
- union of the other male gamete with the 2 polar
nuclei to form the endosperm
3. maturation of the ovary to form fruit
4. maturation of the ovule to form seed
Within the plant kingdom, no two species are
exactly alike.
Some are very similar while others are very
different from one another.
There are many ways of classifying plants: botanical,
descriptive and according to uses or purpose.
Botanical Classification
The botanical classification of plants is based on
the International Code of Nomenclature for cultivated
plants.

Classification of Crop Plants Classification of Crop Plants

Plant Taxonomy- science that deals with classification, The scientific name must be underlined or
nomenclature and identification. italicized and the name of person who gave the
accepted name is affixed by a letter or abbreviation.
It is the basis for discussion and identification.
ex. Oryza sativa L. / Oryza sativa L.
This method will avoid confusion among
scientists as to what crop is being discussed.
This means that Linnaeus gave the accepted
name. Species is divided into subspecies or varieties or
Binomial System of Nomenclature strains.
The binomial system of nomenclature composes the
generic name (genus) and specific name (species).
Grouping Plants
Example
In botanical classification, the plants are grouped
Rice - Oryza (genus) and sativa (species). from the largest to the smallest.
Corn – Zea (genus) and mays (species)

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Classification of Crop Plants Classification of Crop Plants

The botanical classification of field crops can be summarized as
follows:
• Specific example:
Kingdom -Plantae
Division(Phylum) -Spermatophyta(seed producing plants)
• Kingdom -Plantae
Sub-division -Ptecopsida
• Division -Spermatophyta
Class -Angiospermae(covered seeds)
• Sub-division -Ptecopsida
• Class -Angiospermae
-Gymnospermae(naked seeds)
• Sub-class -Dicotyledonae
Sub-class -Monocotyledonae(one cotyledon)
• Order -Rosales
-Dicotyledonae(two cotyledons)
• Family -Leguminosae
Order -Graminalis(grasses)
• Genus -Vigna
-Rosales(legumes)
• Species -radiata
Family -Graminae(grass),
-Leguminosae(legumes)
Genus - a group of structurally related plants Scientific name: Vigna radiata L.
Species - a group of similar plants that normally
breed freely among themselves

Classification of Crop Plants…….. Classification of Crop Plants……..

Descriptive Classification B. According to life cycle

A. According to mode of reproduction
1. sexual - plants that produce seeds, it involves
pollination and fertilization
2. asexual - plants that are produce by any
vegetative means (rhizomes, suckers, bulbs, stolons,
etc.)
1. annuals- complete their life cycle in one year
or less.
e.g squash, rice, peanut, corn, caladium,
marigold, sunflower, chrysanthemum
2. biennials- complete their life cycle in two
years, or require two growing seasons.
e.g onion, carrot, leek, fennel, parsley
3. perennials- live for more than two years or
indefinitely
e.g fruit trees, palms, ferns, tree nuts,
sweet potato, asparagus, artichoke

Classification of Crop Plants…….. Classification of Crop Plants……..

C. According to growth habit D. According to use or purpose for which the crop is grown:
1. herbs- plants with soft and succulent
1. Grain crops- grasses grown for their grains
stems that support itself.
e.g wheat, rice, corn
2. vines- climbing or trailing plants without
2. Legume crops- grown for their pods and seeds
self-supporting stems.
e.g soybean, peanut, beans
3. shrub – short woody plants with many
3. Root crops- grown for their enlarged roots/
branches rarely grows higher than 5 tuberous roots. e.g cassava, sweet potato
meters. 4. Fiber crops- grown for their fiber used in textile,
4. tree- with single central stem called twines, sacks and bags.
trunk to which the branches are e.g cotton, ramie, abaca
attached. 5. Oil crops- grown for their oil content
e.g coconut, soybean, oil palm

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Classification of Crop Plants……..
6. Sugar crops- grown for their sugar content
e.g sugarcane, sugarbeet, sugar palm, sugar maple
7. Feed crop- used for roughage source for animals
a. pasture crops- crops grown in the field
for direct feeding by the animals
b. forage crops- crops grown in the field,
cut and fed to animals
8. Beverage crops- crops used for brewing of drinks
e.g coffee, tea, cacao, corn, rice, barley, hops
9. Spices, condiments, essences- use to provide
special flavor, scents and color
e.g black pepper, vanilla, citronella, chilli
Classification of Crop Plants……..
d. Solanaceous crops- belong to the Solanaceae
family. e.g eggplant, tomato
f. cucurbits- belong to the Cucurbitaceae family
e.g squash, ampalaya, patola, gourds
g. tree vegetables- e.g malunggay, katuray
13. Fruit crops - edible botanical fruits usually used
for dessert; eaten raw, cooked or processed.
a. small fruit- pineapple, strawberry,grapes
b. nut fruit- cashew, pili
c. tree fruit- durian, mango, santol
Classification of Crop Plants……..
• Special purpose classification
1. Green manure crops- legumes, especially soybeans,
cowpeas and other crops which are grown then
plowed under to improve soil fertility.
2. Silage- corn and sorghum, crops most extensively
grown to be cut and preserved in a succulent
condition for silage.
3. Soilage crop- corn, sorghum, soybeans and many
other crops which are cut when green and succulent
and are feed to livestock without curing.
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Classification of Crop Plants……..
10. Latex or resin crops- used for extracting sap from the
trunk/stem.
e.g rubber, opium poppy, pine trees
11. Medicinal crops- with curative or laxative properties
e.g lagundi, sambong, tsaang gubat
12. Vegetable crops- usually eaten with staple crops
a. leafy vegetables- grown mainly for their
leaves. e.g swamp cabbage, pechay
b. cole crops or crucifers- belong to the
cruciferae family e.g cabbage, cauliflower
c. legumes or pulses- belong to the
Leguminosae family
e.g beans, cowpeas, pigeon pea
Classification of Crop Plants……..
14. Ornamental crops- grown for their aesthetic value
a. cut flowers or florist crops- grown for its flowers
e.g. roses, anthuriums.
b. cut foliage or foliage greens- foliage provides
background in floral arrangement . e.g. ferns
c. flowering pot plants- plants grown in container
for their beautiful flowers
e.g. blue palm, Bangkok calachuchi
d. landscape- for landscaping purposes
e.g. turf grass, aquatic and aerial plants
Classification of Crop Plants……..
4. Cover crop- crops seeded on land needing protection
against wind and soil erosion and nutrient loss through
leaching.
e.g rye, tropical Kudzo, false peanut, cowpeas,
assorted grasses, legumes
5. Trap crop- a crop which is planted to protect the main
crop from pest (ex. Gabi, mustard, kale, rye, marigold,
legumes, )
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A. Photosynthesis
It is the process in which CO2 and water are converted into
II. Physiological processes affecting crop production carbon-containing, energy-rich organic compound by chlorophyllous
cells in the presence of light.

It has been said that crop production is basically a system of

exploiting solar energy through photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis is the most important process on earth

because it is the connecting link between energy and life on earth.

The end product is a six carbon simple sugar. It is important to

note that the O2 evolved comes from H2O and CO2.

When the light strikes on the leaf surface, chlorophyll absorbs

and utilizes it in photosynthesis or in the photolysis of water.

In most cases, the red and the blue - violet wavelengths are
absorbed by chlorophyll while the green is reflected. This is the reason
why the leaves of plants are green in color.

Photosynthesis is divided into 2 separate reactions or phases:

• Cyclic photophosphorylation (Photosystem I) – is the
1. Light reaction (Hill reaction) – initiated by light and process whereby the energy from the sun is absorbed by
essentially affected by temperature or by oxygen or by CO2 the chlorophyll molecules and into the cytochrome with
concentration. The steps in the light reaction can be the corresponding release of 2 ATP and back to chlorophyll.
summarized as follows:

A. Photolysis (splitting of water to form H+ ions, electrons • Non-cyclic photophosphorylation (Photosystem II) – the
and O2). Hydrogen is accepted by NADP (nicotinamide adenine energy of light does not go back to chlorophyll; instead it is
dinucleotide phosphate) to form NADPH while the O2 is released
absorbed by the NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
as gas.
to produce NADP. Thus, light energy is converted to
chemical energy in the form of NADPH2 and ATP.
B. Production of energy (Adenosine triphosphate or ATP)
which is either cyclic or non-cyclic photophosphorylation.

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2. Dark reaction (Blackman’s reaction)

- this light independent reaction is thought to involve
the transfer of energy H+ ions and electrons to an
intermediate which in turn bonds to CO2 to produce
carbohydrate.

 The NADPH2 is active in the dark reactions. Hydrogen is
given up by NADPH2 to combine with carbon dioxide
(CO2), yielding a carbohydrate. This is known as Carbon
Dioxide fixation.
The CO2 fixation can occur via three pathways:
1. Calvin Benson or C3 pathway
- Ribulose diphosphate (RuDP) is the CO2 acceptor while 3-
phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) is the first stable product.

Based on this reaction, 2 moles of NADPH and 3 moles 2. Hatch-Slack or C4 pathway

of ATP are required for each mole of CO2 fixed.
- Phosphoenol pyruvic acid (PEP) is the initial CO2 acceptor
and the product is oxaloacetic acid.

3. Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathway

- CO2 is fixed in the dark (at night) and the product is malic
acid

• Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

3. Temperature- The light reactions of photosynthesis are
minimally affected by temperature but the dark reactions
1. Irradiance – The level of natural irradiance varies with the are temperature dependent.
time of the day, season and cloudiness.
• As irradiance increase, net photosynthesis (Ps-R) increases
rapidly until light saturation level is approached at which point
the photosynthetic rate levels off.
4. CO2- This is a limiting factor especially under high light
• On a clear day during summer, irradiance levels are about to
10,000 foot candles. levels.
• In fact, the CO2 levels within the canopy are often well below the
general atmospheric level of 300ppm.
2. Leaf age - photosynthetic rates of young leaves are
usually low but it increases as the leaf approaches full
expansion.

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B. Respiration • There are three major stages of respiration:

• The oxidation of carbon and oxygen accompanied by the

release of energy.
• Also known as biological oxidation, is an enzyme-catalyzed
reaction involving the transformation of organic substrates
(whether aerobic or anaerobic) to CO2 and H2O
accompanied by the release of energy, chiefly in the form of
ATP.
1. Glycolysis – can take place even without oxygen;
2. Kreb’s cycle – cannot take place without oxygen (aerobic
phase).
3. Electron Transport System (ETS) –it is an oxidative
phosphorylation).
The Krebs cycle and the ETS combined is referred to as mitochondria
respiration.
It should also be pointed out that in plants, they also generate ATP during
the light reaction of photosynthesis as well as during respiration.

Comparison of Photosynthesis and Respiration (Margate, 1983)

Photosynthesis
1. The kinetic energy of light is
transformed into chemical energy
2. Hydrogen in H2O is transferred
to CO2 and the oxygen in H2O
given off
3. CO2 is reduced and water is
oxidized
4. Takes place in chloroplast
5. Takes place in light only
Respiration
Chemical energy is transformed
into kinetic energy
The hydrogen of organic
compounds is transferred to O2 is
and water is form
Carbon compounds are oxidized
and oxygen is reduced
Takes place in mitochondria of
of all living things
Takes place in light and dark

6. Always increases dry weight Always decreases the dry weight

of plants of plants
7. Energy-absorbing process Energy-releasing process

C. Transpiration • Types of Transpiration

• Transpiration is the loss of water from the plants in the form 1. Cuticular transpiration- loss of water through the
of water vapor. epidermis which is usually covered with cuticle, 5-10% is
lost through this pathway.
• It is basically an evaporative process, dependent on the
supply of energy and the vapor pressure gradient between
the evaporating surface and the ambient air. 2. Lenticular transpiration- through the lenticels of trees
without leaves (during winter time).
Significance of Transpiration:
1. Aids in the transport and distribution of nutrients 3. Stomatal transpiration- through the stomates, it can
absorb by the roots from the soil. account for more than 90% of the water lost from plants.
2. Help maintain a favorable temperature for growth and
development.

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• Factors affecting transpiration

• Guttation- loss of liquid water from the plants through specialized
structure called hydathodes.
Since most of the water lost from plants occur through the
stomates, factors that would influence the opening and
closure of the stomata will invariably affect transpiration:

1. Light intensity
2. Water content of the plant
3. Vapor pressure deficit of the air
4. Temperature
5. Air movement

D. Translocation In contrast, the photosynthates are usually transported

Significance of translocation
The absorption and transport of raw materials used for
photosynthesis and the translocation of photosynthetic
products to areas of storage and consumption are important
in understanding plant growth and development.
in living conduits like the phloem vessels which in return
contain protoplasmic strands or plasmodesmata, often
referred collectively as “symplast”, hence symplastic
movement.
The main form of photosynthate translocated in the
plant is sucrose.

The upward movement of solution from roots through

The water and the solutes dissolved in it that is
absorbed by the roots from the soil are transported to
upper parts of the plant through non-living conduits like the
dead xylem vessels and the intercellular spaces. This is
referred to as apoplast, hence apoplastic transport.
the xylem to the uppermost leaves is also called the
transpirational stream, because transpiration is the primary
cause of this movement.

• Mechanisms of translocation E. Mineral Nutrition in Plants

Movement of materials in living plants have been observed to
occur in different ways:
1. Ordinary diffusion- transport ion and molecules slowly
2. Cytoplasmic streaming- transports ions and molecules
within the cytoplasm at a considerably faster rate than
diffusion.
At least 60 elements have been shown to be present in
plant tissue.
From nutritional studies, however, it has been
established that an element may always present in plant
tissue but not necessarily essential and that the importance
of an element is not in proportion to the amount present.

3. Downward mass or bulk flow- downward flow of

materials from the upper portion of the plants to the
roots.

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These elements are grouped into two:

• Elements required by plants for their life processes are

called “essential elements”. 1. MACRONUTRIENTS or Major Elements- required by plants in
relatively large amounts.
Nitrogen (N)
• There are 16 elements needed by plants for growth and Phosphorus (P) found in the soil,
development. Potassium (K) not replaceable by nature
Calcium (Ca)
• They are obtained from air, water and soil or from Magnesium (Mg)
agricultural limestone and other chemical and minerals that Sulfur (S)
can be processed into fertilizers.
Carbon (C) found in the atmosphere,
Hydrogen (H) replaceable by nature
Oxygen (O)

2. MICRONUTRIENTS or Trace Elements- needed by plants • Criteria for Essentiality

in small amounts or quantities A nutrient element is considered essential if it meets
the following criteria:
Iron (Fe)
Zinc (Zn) they are also found 1. The element is required for the completion of the
Chlorine (Cl) in the soil, not vegetative and the reproductive life cycle of the plant.
Molybdenum (Mo) replaceable by
Manganese (Mn) nature 2. The element is directly involved in the nutrition of the
Copper (Cu) plant and performs specific functions.
Boron (B)
3. The elements cannot be substituted with other elements

• Functions of Mineral Elements 2. Phosphorus (HPO4-, H2PO4-)

1. Nitrogen ( NH4+, NO3-)
a. integral components of proteins or chlorophyll,
hence, important in photosynthesis.
b. gives vigorous vegetative growth and deep green
color to plants.
Deficiency Symptoms
Deficiency symptoms:
a. general yellowing of leaves (yellowing starts on the
lower or older leaves)
b. low top/root ratio indicating its function for
vegetative dry matter production.
a. carrier of energy (ATP), essential in
photosynthesis and respiration.
b. constituent of DNA and RNA in nucleus, hence,
important in inheritance
c. a cofactor in fat synthesis
a. severe reduction in photosynthetic capacity and plants
show stunted growth.
b. dark green color of leaves
c. purple coloration of stem or stalk in case of corn.

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3. Potassium (K+)
a. important in carbohydrate metabolism, protein synthesis
and photolysis of water.
b. responsible in stomatal movement
c. enhance light absorption
d. important in seed development and quality
Deficiency symptoms:
a. stunted growth
b. yellowing of leaves, yellowing starts along the margin of
the older leaves.
5. Magnesium (Mg++)
a. constituent of the chlorophyll molecule, therefore
important in photosynthesis, chlorophyll formation and
activation of enzymes.
Deficiency symptoms:
a. interveinal chlorosis (cereals)
b. purplish discoloration (cotton)
7. Boron (BO3-)
a. involved in the synthesis of ATP
b. involved in the translocation of sugar across cell
membrane
c. important in cell division
Deficiency symptoms:
a. growth stops followed by death of terminal bud because
it is an immobile element in plants
b. chlorosis at the base of leaves
c. uneven thickness of peel in citrus
d. inhibition of the growth of pollen tube
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4. Calcium (Ca++)
a. required in cell division and elongation with a great role
in cell membrane stability.
b. important in the formation of middle lamellae because of
its role in the sythesis of calcium-pectate.
Deficiency symptoms
a. failure of terminal buds and root tips to develop
b. failure of some new leaves to open. Symptoms appear
first on the younger tissues because Ca is immobile
in plants.
c. blossom-end rot
6. Sulfur (SO4-)
a. it is a component of essential amino acids (sulfur-
containing amino acids) which are important for protein
synthesis (cystine, methionine)
b. important in nodule formation in leguminous plants
c. important constituent of thiamine and coenzyme A
Deficiency symptoms:
a. yellowing of the leaves (yellowing appear first in the
younger leaves because it is immobile)
b. reduced nodulation in legumes
8. Iron (Fe++, Fe+++)
a. associated with the synthesis of chloroplastic protein
(protein in chlorophyll)
b. enzyme activator
c. component in cytochrome
Deficiency symptoms
a. interveinal chlorosis, symptoms are seen first in younger
leaves since it is not retranslocated from older to younger
leaves
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9. Manganese (Mn++) 10. Zinc (Zn++)

a. involved in enzyme activation important in carbohydrate a. involved in the synthesis of tryptophan, a precursor of
metabolism indole acetic acid (IAA), so it is involved in growth.
b. synthesis of riboflavin and carotene b. activator of several enzymes
c. synthesis of chlorophyll
d. photolysis of water Deficiency symptoms
a. rosetting of leaves, symptoms appear first on younger
Deficiency symptoms leaves
a. interveinal chlorosis

• Fate of Soil Nutrients (Why soil fertility declines?)
Soil nutrients may be lost due to the following:
1. crop removal
2. losses through runoff and erosion
3. fixation or transformation of nutrients from available
to unavailable forms
4. volatilization
5. losses through leaching
• To sustain the productivity of soil, the fertility level should
be maintained by either:
1. fertilizer supplementation
2. practices that would minimize erosion, leaching,
volatilization and nutrient fixation must be implemented
-vegetation cover
-correct farming practices (contour farming, terracing,
hedgerow planting in sloping areas)

• Fertilizer and fertilizer application 2. Inorganic fertilizer- fertilizer that came from synthetically
A fertilizer is any substance that is added to the soil to produced chemicals or natural inorganic sources
supply plants with one or more of the essential elements. e.g ammonium sulfate
superphosphate
There are two types of fertilizer according to form of
materials: Kinds of inorganic fertilizer according to the number of
elements present
1. Organic fertilizer- those fertilizer that have been derived 1. Single element fertilizer- contains only one fertilizer
from either plant or animal residues (rice straws, corn stalks, element.
corn cobs), manures (chicken dung, large animal manures) e.g ammonium sulfate (21-0-0)
superphosphate (0-20-0)
Urea (46-0-0)

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2. double element fertilizer- contains two fertilizer elements

e.g ammonium phosphate (16-20-0)
3. complete fertilizer- contains the three elements (NPK)
e.g 14-14-14, 16-16-16
2. Fertilizer grade or analysis- refers to the percentage of
nutrient per 100kg of fertilizer material.
Example:
ammonium sulfate (21-0-0), there is 21% N or 21 kg N
for every 100kg of fertilizer material.

Terminologies related to fertilizer

1. Fertilizer ratio- refers to the relative amount of N, P and K
in a fertilizer grade. 3. Filler or carrier – a material not containing the fertilizer
element which is added to complete the weight of fertilizer.
e.g 14-14-14 has a ratio of 1:1:1

• General characteristics • The process of applying fertilizer is called fertilization.

Organic Fertilizer : Fertilization- the addition of any natural or synthesized
1. low nutrient analysis materials for the purpose of supplementing the nutrient
2. slow availability present in the soil.
3. contain all the essential elements
4. improve the physical condition of the soil Purposes of fertilization:
5. limited supply 1. to increase crop production
2. to correct and maintain fertility level in the field
Inorganic Fertilizer:
1. high nutrient analysis
2. readily soluble
3. good supply

• Factors to consider in applying fertilizer

2. Weather condition (moisture of the soil)
1. Soil type
clay soils- require lower amount of fertilizer because it wet soil - lower amount of fertilizer if the soil is moist,
has the ability to retain certain elements. there is a rapid movement of soil to the roots.
sandy soils- require higher amount of fertilizer, not
retentive to plant nutrients and more susceptible to dry soil - higher amount of fertilizer to compensate the
leaching. loss through volatilization.

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3. Characteristics of the crop
a. economic value of the crop
- crops of high economic value such as vegetables
justify larger expenditures per kg of response
obtained;
- lower rates of fertilizer are recommended in crops
with low economic values.
b. nutrient removal of the crop
- if the nutrient removal of the crop is high, fertilizer
application is usually increased to compensate for
this loss.
5. Length of growing season
legumes (short duration)- less fertilizer requirement
cereals (long duration)- more fertilizer requirement
Fertilizer must be applied during early vegetative growth
N - for vegetative parts
P less soluble, application should be
K ahead of time
4. Localized placement
a. sideband -fertilizer is applied in band to one or both
side of the plant
b. ring - fertilizer is placed around the plant
c. in-the-row cultivation- fertilizer is placed in the row
before or at planting time
5. Foliar application- involves dissolving of fertilizer material
in water and then applied as spray on the leaves of the
plant.
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4. Productivity of the soil (original fertility)
- a poor soil naturally would require more fertilizer than
a rich one to attain the same level of yield.
soil fertility- inherent capacity of the soil to provide plants
with essential elements
soil productivity- capacity of the soil to produce crops or
sequence of crops under a specified system of management.
• Methods of applying fertilizer
1. Broadcast application- fertilizer is applied uniformly over
the surface of the land
2. Top dressing- broadcasting fertilizer over the growing
plants
3. Sidedressing- fertilizer is placed between the rows of
crops. It is made simultaneously with cultivation.
F. Plant Growth and Development
• Plant growth- is an irreversible increase in size including
length and volume. The increased in size is accompanied by
the increase in dry weight and a change in form and shape.
• Plant development- refers to the change in size, shape,
form, degree of differentiation and state of complexity.
• Differentiation- is the progressive change from the
structurally simple meristematic tissue to the complex and
variable tissue and combinations of tissue in the adult plant
body.
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Phases of Plant Growth
Phase 1. Lag phase. This is the period in which internal
changes occur preparatory to growth (germination to early
vegetative growth).
Phase 2. Exponential phase. This is the fastest rate of growth
(middle and last stage of vegetative growth). It is referred to
as the “grand period of growth”.
Phase 3. Declining phase. This is the stage where the plants
have fully developed the number of leaves and size of
leaves. This is the onset of flowering. The increase in growth
due to flower formation is offset by leaf abscission.
The normal growth of the plant follow the sigmoid pattern. It
consist of five distinct phases:
steady state
Total decreasing state
Growth
Exponential
phase
Lag phase
time
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Phase 4. Steady phase. This is a point in which the rate of
growth is just steady. A period of pod and grain filling to
ripening and maturity.
Phase 5. Senescence. After maturity and grain filling ceases,
the plant begin to die and abscission of the leaves set in,
then the growth curve fall down due to the lose of plant
parts.
Factors affecting plant growth and development
Generally, the growth of plant is affected by:
senescence
1. genetic factor
2. environmental factor
• The genetic factor is fixed for a given plant but the
environment influences the development and interact with
the genetic composition.
• The gene determines the trait or character of a plant while
the environment determines the degree of development of
such trait or character.
• The development and performance of crop is
governed by two main groups of factors, the
genotype (internal factor) and the environment
(external factor).
• Crop yield is a function of its genotype, the
environment and the interaction between genotype
and environment, thus:
Yield= Genotype(G) + Environment(E) + (GxE)
25

Genetic factor
The only component of genetic factor is the
gene. The gene is the unit of inheritance located in
the chromosomes. Each cell contains a complete set
of chromosomes. The parents transmit their traits or
characters to the offspring through the gene.
The gene consist of coded information in the
form of specific arrangement of the units of the
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA molecules).
• Environmental factors
Environmental factors are those factors that are external
to the plants that affects or contributory to its existence. These
factors are also needed for plant growth and development but
they are variable that their effects also vary.
• The environment of the plant includes:
1. Abiotic factors – soil, climate
2. Biotic factors- beneficial organisms like
pollinators (birds, bats, insects), decomposers and natural pest
enemies
• b. light quality- refers to the wavelength or
electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelength of visible light
is approximately from 380 to 800 nm.
-Experiment on lettuce seeds:
Red (1min) 70% germination
Red-Far red (1:4min) 6%
R-Fr-R 74%
• -(Note: reversible in effect)
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• Genes also interact with one another. One induces
color production on a flower but it requires the
presence of another gene to intensify the color
development. A gene that controls more than one
character in a plant is called pleiotropic. Plant
characters such as yield are controlled by many genes,
all of which have a small additive and/or interactive
effect. In this case, inheritance is said to be polygenic.
When one gene masks the effect of another, it is
called epistatic, and when two dominant genes are
required for their expression of a certain characters,
they re called complementary.
• Climate
-Its is the condition of the atmosphere for a long period
of time.
The important climatic elements affecting plant growth are:
1. Light (radiant energy)
The three aspects of light important to plants are :
a. light intensity- refers to the amount of light received by
the plants (measured in foot candles or lux).
c. light duration- refers to the length of light to which the
plants are exposed each day (expressed in hours per day).
Plant responses to daylength is called photoperiodism.
In response to daylength, plants are grouped into three:
1. Long day plants (LDP) – bear flowers only when
subjected to long days (13-16 hrs/day)
2. Short day plants (SDP) – flowers only when
subjected to short days (8-12 hrs/day)
3. Day neutral plants (DNP) – plants that are not
affected by daylength
26

• In the Philippines, short day usually starts from
September to January and long days from February to
October
2. Temperature
Temperature refers to the amount of heat received
by the plants during its growth stages. All physiological,
chemical and biological processes in plants are influenced
by temperature.
The optimum temperature for most plants is 20-25
0C
3. Rainfall
Precipitation occurs either as a liquid (rain, drizzle, fog or
mist). It is a source of almost all available freshwater and is
very important in plant growth and development.
The main functions of water are:
1. raw material for photosynthesis
2. act as solvent of plant food and nutrient in the soil
3. carries nutrient from the soil into the plant system
4. maintains turgidity of the plant cells
5. water help regulate favorable plant temperature.
• Types of climate (Coronas, 1920)
Type I- two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April and wet
the rest of the year. The dry season lasts from 3 to 7 months (less
than 50mm precipitation). This type of climate prevails on the
western part of Luzon, Mindoro, Negros and Palawan.
Type II- no dry season with a very pronounced maximum rain period
from November to January. This prevails in Catanduanes, Sorsogon,
eastern part of Albay, eastern parts of Camarines Norte and
Camarines Sur, and a great portion of eastern Mindanao
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• Temperature of the environment is primarily dependent upon:
1. solar radiation
2. surrounding land masses or bodies of water
3. altitude
Crops may be classified according to temperature requirement:
1. cool season crops (cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, peas, potato)
2. warm season crops (rice, mungbean, banana)
3. tropical crops (coconut, jackfruit)
4. sub-tropical crop (citrus)
• The average annual rainfall in the country is
2,553mm.
Luzon – 2724 mm
Visayas- 2391.1 mm
Mindanao- 2349.8 mm
• There are two seasons in the Philippines, the wet and
the dry season
Type III- season are not very pronounced, relatively dry from
November to April and relatively wet for the rest of the year. Not
very pronounced maximum rain periods with a short dry season
lasting only from one to three months. This covers the western part
of Cagayan Valley, Isabela, Nueva Ecija, western portion of
Mountain Province, Southern Quezon, central and southern Cebu,
part of Northern Mindanao and most of eastern Palawan.
Type IV- rainfall is more or less evenly distributed or rather not very
pronounced maximum rain and no dry periods. Both cyclonic and
north eastern monsoon rain as well as thunderstorm rains are
experienced in these region without single dry month during the
year. This prevails in, Batanes island, northeastern Luzon,
southwestern part of Camarines Sur and Albay, Quezon, eastern
Mindoro, Marinduque, Western Leyte, Northern Cebu, Central
eastern and Southern Mindanao.
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4. Humidity 5. Air
It refers to the mild moving wind.
It refers to the amount of water vapor in the air. The
importance of humidity in agriculture aside from its direct
It has some beneficial effects to the plants:
effect on plant growth is its effect on diseases and pest
incidence. Fungal diseases are prevalent at high relative a. air is necessary for effective pollination especially in corn
humidity. b. air helps replenish CO2 around the plant environment
c. air carries rain

Effects of Relative Humidity on plants Harmful effects

a. water vapor of the air affects the drying and storing of a. increase transpiration in plants and evaporation of moisture from the
soil
seeds.
b. vector of plant diseases (carries spores of fungi)
b. relative humidity affects the transpiration process. c. strong wind caused lodging

6. Cloud, mist and fog • Soil

Soils are very important factors for crop production. Soil texture and soil pH
play a major role in determining which crop are grown.
Cloud, mist and fog have an important effect on the
amount of radiation received by plants. In the presence of
clouds, mist and fogs, most of the solar radiation reaching the Importance of soil:
earth is reflected. 1. furnishes stratum for germination of seeds
Alteration of light intensity and modification of 2. anchors the plant roots
temperature by cloud cover, in return affect two important 3. maintains or hold moisture and mineral elements for plant growth.
plant processes- photosynthesis and respiration.
Soils are classified based on:
Classification of plants according to light intensity requirements: 1. chemical properties
a. heliophytes- sun-loving, saturated at about 15,000 ft.candles 2. physical properties
b. sciophytes- shade-loving, saturated at about 500 ft.candles

• Physical properties of soil 2. Soil structure- refers to the arrangement of soil particles. A good soil
1. Soil texture-refers to the size and relative proportion of the various size groups in a given soil.
structure has pore spaces in which water and air can circulate, favors water
infiltration, easy to cultivate, protects wind and water erosion.
Soil texture can be classified as follows:
gravel(>2.0mm) – very coarse texture 3. Bulk density – refers to the degree of compactness or looseness of the soil.
It is measured by the volume and weight of the soil. It also determines
sand (2.0-0.05mm) – coarse texture water holding capacity and air movement in the soil
silt (0.05-0.002mm) – fine texture
clay ( < 0.002mm ) very fine texture
The soil environment favorable for root growth should have the following characteristics:
4. Color of the soil – used as an indicator whether the soil is fertile or not
1. good aeration -black soil are usually fertile
2. good drainage -gray/grayish soil are also fertile
3. favorable water holding capacity -red/yellow/white are usually poor soil
4. ample nutrient supply

5. Topography- refers to the surface feature of the soil whether flat or hilly,
sloping or rolling hills.

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Chemical properties of the Soil • Climatic Stress

1. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) – measured in terms of the
capacity of positive ions to exchange with the negative ions, an
indicator of high nutrient content.
2. Soil pH- refers to the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion
concentration. It also refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the
soil.
1. Drought- insufficiency of rainfall/moisture
absolute drought- 29 consecutive days without rainfall of
at least 0.25mm
partial drought-15 consecutive days without rainfall of at
least 0.25mm
2. Salinization- soil salinization is the enrichment of the
salts, mainly sodium chloride (NaCl) or sodium sulfate
(Na).

3. El Nino and La nina 4. Lahar- after volcanic eruption, the volcanic ash and other
pyroclastic materials together with some soil particles are
suspended in solution, resulting in the production of lahar.
El nino- spectacular oceanographic/meteorological Large volume of lahar may inundate crops, human habitation
phenomenon that develops in the Pacific, mostly off Peru. and other infrastructure
This is associated with extreme climatic variability. It is
characterized by weather disturbances or unexpected
climatic changes such as absence of rain during the rainy 5. Greenhouse effect, ozone and global warming
season.
La-nina – refers to the cold phase during which the
equatorial central eastern pacific sea surface are generally
below normal.

C. Biotic factors
Beneficial organisms
1. Pollinators
birds, bats, insects (beetles, bees, butterflies)

2. Decomposers- consist mostly of heterotrophic bacteria and

fungi that obtain energy by breaking down organic remains or
products of other organisms.

3. Natural pest enemies- consist of organism that are non-

destructive to crops but help keep down the population of
both destructive insects and arachnid pest as well as pathogen.

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DEFINITION
Land Preparation
• Tillage refers to the mechanical manipulation of the soil with tools and
• Tillage operations in various forms have been practiced from the very implement so as to create favorable soil conditions for better seed
inception of growing plants. germination and subsequent growth of crops.

• The word tillage is derived from the Anglo-Saxon words tilian and teolian, • Tilth is a physical condition of the soil resulting from tillage.
meaning to plow and prepare soil for seed to sow, to cultivate and to raise
crops. Jethro Tull, who is considered as Father of tillage suggested that
thorough plowing is necessary so as to make the soil into fine particles.

OBJECTIVES • To break hard soil pans and to improve drainage facility;

• To incorporate crop residues and organic matter left over;
Tillage is done: • To level the field for efficient water management

• To prepare ideal seed bed favorable for seed germination, growth

and establishment;
• To loosen the soil for easy root penetration and proliferation;
• To remove other sprouting materials in the soil;
• To control weeds;
• To certain extent to control pest and diseases which harbor in the
soil;
• To ensure adequate aeration in the root zone which in turn favor for
microbial and biochemical activities;

• Wetland/Lowland Preparation
…
Types of Land Preparation Soaking Water is absorbed until soil is saturated

Plowing Initial breaking and turning-over of soil & weeds

 PRIMARY TILLAGE
Dryland or Upland (1-2x)
Wetland or (rice and most crops)
Lowland (rice)
Harrowing Soil clods are broken down & puddled
 SECONDARY TILLAGE
or
Plowing (P) Rotavation
Macropores destroyed
Harrowing (H) or (> 2x) PUDDLING Micropores maintained/increased
Rotavation (R)
Leveling (L)
Leveling Final preparation  sometimes synchronized with
(1x) basal fertilizer application
Wet or Dry Dry Preparation
Preparation

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• Variations in Lowland Preparation

• Variations in Lowland Preparation
Transplanting/Seeding
For dry crop establishment
Land Preparation

1. Wet P, H/R, L • Low water requirement during land preparation

•
Direct Wet Seeded Soil structure not disturbed
Transplanted • Weed control must done at early crop stage
Soil Puddled • Percolation/seepage --- high during crop growth
2. Dry P, Wet H/R & L

For light textured soils

3. Dry P, H/R, L  Direct Dry Seeded

 Soil Not Puddled

• Dry land/Upland Preparation

• Dryland/Upland Preparation
Plowing  Cut soil into furrow slices
1o Tillage
(1-2x)  Incorporate weeds No. of plowing and harrowing depend on:

• Soil type (texture)

drying until field capacity • Weed density (no. of passing affected by weed biomass)
• Water availability/Moisture content
Harrowing  Pulverize clods • too dry --- clods/breaking is hard
 Compact soil at certain degree
2o Tillage • too wet --- compaction
(2-3x)
 Final weed incorporation • at field capacity --- soil slide from moldboard
• Crop to be grown (seed size, rooting ability, root zone depth)
• Level of resources available
• Farmer’s preference

• Dryland/Upland Preparation • Dryland/Upland Preparation

Well Prepared Upland Fields Benefits derived from Land Preparation

• Granular and mellow yet compact enough for the seeds
• Free from trash, undecomposed plant residues and vegetation
• Field is level  minimum or no depressions
• Weed control
• Increase in soil porosity and aeration
• Mixing of soil --- bring up leached deposit
• Give soil fine tilth to increase adsorption of nutrients
• Fertilizers incorporated in the soil

o Germination, seedling emergence and stand establishment

improved

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• Land Preparation and Farm Implements

•.
Condition

Submerged
Power Source

Carabao/Water Buffalo (0.5-

Implement

Moldboard plow, Comb-tooth harrow,

Cono-puddler
Other Info

20 man-days per hectare

• Disc
1.3hp) (complete)

Hand tractors
Wooden leveler

Single-axle pedestrian tractor (5-10hp), 1-1.5 ha per 8hr of plowing &

harrow
(3-16hp) Double-axle pedestrian tractor (8- harrowing
15hp), Floating rotary tillers

Carabao or Bullock Moldboard plow, Spike-tooth harrow

Dry
Hand Tractors Moldboard plow or disc plow,
Rotovator

4-Wheel Tractors Moldboard plow,Disc plow, Disc

harrow, Disc plow & Harrow
(combination), Rotovator, Mower or
flail type grass cutter, Subsoiler ---
Chisel plow

Ox or Bullock Moldboard plow, Spike-tooth harrow One plowing = 36-72hr per

Upland Tillage hectare
Hand Tractors Single-axle pedestrian tractor One plowing = 8.8-12.5 machine
hr per hectare
4-Wheel Tractors Moldboard plow, Disc plow, Disc e.g. <20 brake hp: One plowing =
harrow 11-14 machine hr per hectare
Disc plow & Harrow (combination), Etc.

•.
Main field
• Mould
preparation
using
board plow
power tiller

operated cage
wheel

•.
• Disc plow •.
• Spike-tooth
harrow

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•. •.
• Mouldboard
• Comb-tooth plow
harrow

Pest Management • The development of pest problem is associated with three

main components:
1. virulent pest
• Crops suffer losses or reduction in yield as a result of the damage
caused by weeds, insect pest and diseases. It is therefore important 2. susceptible host
that adequate protection measures be observed through a
combination of control strategies that would, at the same time, 3. favorable environment
ensure safety to humans and environment. • Control measure is also directed to the balance of these three
forces.
• Crop protection is very important component of modern agriculture.
It involves the prevention and control of pests such as insects,
diseases, rodents and weeds. Generally, crop protection should start
early to permit the plants to produce healthy leaves for
photosynthesis.

• Weed Management
• Principles of Crop Protection
Definitions of weed:
1. A weed is a plant growing where it is not desired
The ultimate goal of applied crop protection is to hold pest
2. A weed is a plant that is out of place
populations below their economic threshold. This can be achieved through
application of control measures which may not assure complete success 3. A weed is a plant that has no economic value
but at least reduce pest population. The measure used to achieved pest 4. A weed is a plant whose potentialities for harm is greater than its potentialities
control can be divided into six categories which are also expressed as for good.
principles. These principles are: exclusion, eradication, protection, 5. A weed is a plant that is detrimental to agriculture rather than beneficial.
development of resistance, therapy and avoidance.
Damages caused by weeds:
1. Weeds reduce crop yields due to competition for light, water and nutrients.
2. Lower the selling value of the land

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3. Increased labor cost 2. Sedges- are similar to grasses but have 3-ranked leaves and triangular
4. Reduced the quality of products stem, absence of ligule
5. Weeds serve as alternate host of insect pests and diseases. e.g Cyperus rotundus
6. Clog irrigation and drainage canals
7. Some weeds are poisonous to man and animals. 3. Broadleaf weeds- weeds with broad and net-veined leaves. e.g
Amaranthus spinosus

Types of weeds according to morphology: General Principles of Weed Control

1. limit weed population to non-economic level
1. Grasses- weeds with narrow, two-ranked leaves, parallel venation, round 2. weed control measures should be directed against organs responsible for
stems and have ligules. reproduction and spread
e.g Rottboellia exaltata 3. weed control should start early and sustained until the crop can compete
favorably with them.

• Methods of Weed Control • Hilling-up operation in corn field

1. Physical method- involves the use of hands and small garden tools in
removing weeds .
e.g hand weeding

2. Mechanical method- use of tillage implement powered by animals or

machines
e.g mowing, rotary weeding, intertillage cultivation, plowing,
harrowing

3. Biological method- use of natural enemies such as insects, animals and

other organisms to control weeds.

• Physical method of controlling weeds in Pummelo farm • Chemical method of controlling weeds in Pummelo farm

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4. Cultural method- use of cultural practices in reducing weed population
e.g flooding, intercropping, crop rotation
5. Chemical method- use of herbicides to control weeds
• Classification of Herbicides
1. Based on mode of application
a. contact herbicide – exerts killing effect by coming in contact with the
weed.
b. systemic herbicide- herbicide that is translocated first to the system of
the plant before it exerts its killing effect.
2. Based on Selectivity
a. selective herbicide- kills certain weed species only
b. non-selective herbicide- herbicide that kills all type of
vegetation.
3. Based on time of application
a. pre-plant herbicide – herbicide that is applied to the soil
before planting the crop.
e.g Methyl bromide- kill weed seeds and vegetative propagules

b. pre-emergence herbicide- applied before the emergence of the crop • Insect Pest Management
and/or the weed
e.g Premox Herbadox
Machete Saturn The study of insects in a restricted sense, is known as Entomology.
Eptam M Treflam Applied Entomology is a descriptive name used to identify and
characterized activities aimed at solving problems caused by insect pests. It
is, therefore important to study individual pest species, their histories,
c. Post-emergence herbicide – applied after the emergence of the crop and cycles in nature, their host plants and animal relations to increase the
or the weed probability of success in insect pest control.
e.g 2,4-D A knowledge on insect classification, growth and development and
Round up life cycle is requisite to the conduct of control programs.
Gramoxone
Power

• What is pest? • Insects are six legged animals. They may be classified as:
1. According to life cycle or metamorphism
Pest- is anything that annoys or injures crops, domestic animals or humans a. complete metamorphosis
- anything that competes with crops, animals or humans for food,
feed or water eggnymphpupaadult (stemborer)

Insect- is an arthropod with three body regions namely: the head, thorax and b. incomplete metamorphosis
abdomen
eggnymphadult (locust/grasshopper)
Arthropod- is an animal which is segmented, bilaterally symmetrical,
possessing a hard, chitinous exoskeleton and paired jointed appendages 2. According to type of damage to plants
a. sucking- bugs, ants, aphids
Insect pest- an insect which causes damage to crops
b. chewing- locust

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• How do insect pest destroy crops?
Insect pest destroy crops directly or indirectly by:
1. consuming plant tissues
2. decomposing plant tissues
3. sucking plant sap
4. transmitting systemic plant pathogens such as viruses
5. providing entry points for other pathogens such as bacteria,
fungi and nematodes
b. Topographic factor- mountain ranges and large bodies of water act as
barriers to the spread of insects
c. Natural enemies- birds, small animals, disease organisms help reduce
insect population. However, the use of pesticides may kill the enemies
thereby destroying the ecological balance resulting to more pest problems.
b. trap crop- small plantings of susceptible or preferred crop may be
established near a major crop to act as trap. Then this crop is treated with
insecticide, plowed under or both.
c. tillage- this reduces the soil-inhabiting insects by mechanical
damage, burying or exposing a stage of insects.
d. clean culture- removal of crop residues, disposal of weeds are
effective against hibernating insect pests.
e. planting of resistant varieties
3/20/2024
• Methods of Insect Control
There are six methods of insect control:
1. Natural control
Reduction of insect population by the forces of nature. Natural
control includes:
a. Climate factor- weather conditions, specially temperature affect insects
directly and may govern the number of pest generations in a given season.
Moisture and temperature influence the condition of the host plants and
affect the plant-feeding insects.
2. Biological control
This is the reduction of insect population by means of living
organisms (parasites and predators)
3. Cultural method
The reduction of insect population by utilization of agricultural
practices. This is making the environment unfavorable for pests. This
method is more on prevention rather than cure. It is economical specially
for low-unit value crops but sometimes inconvenient to farmers.
Examples:
a. crop rotation- isolates pest from food supply and habitat
4. Mechanical control- reduction of insect population by means of devices
which affect them directly or which radically affect their physical
environment.
e.g handpicking, trapping, screen, barriers
5. Physical control- this involves the use of electricity, sound waves, infra-
red, x-rays or light to kill insects, reduce their reproductive capacity or
attract them to a killing mechanism
e.g employment of heat and cold during storage period to eliminate
insect infestation, plant quarantine.
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6. Chemical control- reduction of insect population or prevention of insect • Plant Disease Management
injury by the use of insecticides.

Definition of plant disease:

Insecticides are classified as:
a. an upset in the functions of plants
1. Contact poison-kills insects that comes in contact with the herbicide
2. Systemic insecticide- kills insects as they eat the treated plants
b. an impairment of the plant’s usefulness to itself and to
man’s demand with visible symptoms and signs of malfunctions.
3. Repellant- repel insects by their odor
e.g Napthalene balls
The study of plant diseases is known as plant pathology or
4. Attractants- attract insects and once they are there, it is easy to kill them phytopathology. It includes the study the study of the causes of
6. Fumigants- they are used as dusts to kill storage insects plant diseases, their nature and the environmental factors favoring
e.g Ridomil disease production and control.

• Diagnosis of plant diseases • Causes of plant diseases

1. Living organisms (pathogens)
• The most effective way to control a disease is when one knows the
fungi bacteria
primary cause of the disease. Plant disease diagnosis consists of nematodes mycoplasmas
discriminating between diseases and distinguishing them by their viruses parasitic flowering plants
characteristics, signs and symptoms.

• Sign- is the indication of the presence of disease. This is usually at the 2. Non-living organisms (physiological disease)
initiation stage of plant disease. a. environmental factors
• Symptom- is the indication of the evidence of the presence of disease temperature
air pollutants
relative humidity

b. soil factors • Most destructive and widespread fungal diseases of Philippine crops:
pesticide residues
nutrient deficiency and toxicity a. downy mildew in corn
soil pH b. rice blast
moisture stress c. coffee rust and rust diseases of legumes
d. anthracnose diseases
Fungi- commonly called molds are microscopic. They affect their host plant e. phytophthora diseases
by:
a. secreting substance which destroy the cells of the host and affect Bacteria- unicellular microorganism, they enter the plant body through
the normal functioning of the plant. wounds and/or natural openings such as the stomates, hydathodes and
b. producing substance which are accumulated in the vascular lenticels.
system, preventing the transport of water and causing the plant to wilt and
die.

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Examples of bacterial diseases: Examples of viral diseases symptoms

a. bacterial wilt of solanaceous plants and banana a. yellow spots or streaks or mosaic pattern
b. soft rot of vegetables b. stunted growth
c.cankers c. curling and twisted leaves
d. proliferation of twigs at an internode
• Viruses- they are small, can only be seen with an electron microscope. They
enter the plants through wounds and natural openings and are usually Most devastating viral diseases
transmitted by insects, man, animals, nematodes and infected planting a. tungro disease of rice
materials.
b. abaca mosaic
c. virus disease of legumes

• Nematodes- are tiny eelworms which live freely in the soil and feed on
2. Cultural methods
microscopic animals and plants. Several species however feed on crop plants a. planting of resistant varieties
and cause considerable damage
b. crop rotation
Nematodes cause diseases in plants by: c. clean culture
1. causing mechanical injuries on roots or aerial plant parts d. timing of culture
2. causing root swelling or root knots
3. Biological methods- use of microorganisms that compete with parasites
Prevention and control of plant diseases or antagonistic to the pathogen
1. Physical and mechanical methods e.g Paecilomyces lilacinus for the control of root-knot and cyst
a. burning nematodes of white potatoes, bananas and citrus
b. exposure to radiation
c. soil sterilization

4. Chemical control- use of chemicals such as fungicides, • Integrated Pest Management

bactericides and nematicides

A. Definition
Use of a judicial combination of mechanical, cultural, biological and
chemical methods to achieve economic and effective pest control. It is a
method whereby all economically, ecologically and toxicologically justifiable
methods are employed to keep the harmful organisms below the threshold
level of economic damage, keeping in the foreground the conscious
employment of natural limiting factors.

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• IPM is the rational use of direct and indirect control methods to provide
cost-effective pest control. Such an approach is the most attractive
alternative from agronomic, economic and ecological point of view.
• Among the commonly suggested indirect methods are land preparation,
water management and fertilizer application. Direct methods include
manual, cultural, mechanical and chemical methods of pest control.
Salamat!
3/20/2024
Why IPM?
• One method of pest control may be effective and economical in a
situation and it may not be so in other situation.
• No single pesticide is effective in controlling wide range of pest.
• Continuous use of same pesticide creates resistance in pests.
• Only one method of control may lead to increase in population of
particular pest.
• Indiscriminate pesticide use and its effects on the environment and
human health.
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