What is agriculture?

In nominal definition, agriculture comes from the Latin word ager, agri meaning field
and culturameaning growing, cultivation. Therefore it means “growing and cultivating the field”. While the
real definition agriculture is the science or practice of farming which includes the cultivation of the soil for
the growing of crops and fruit-bearing trees. It also considers the raising of animals to provide food and
other raw materials which can produce another products.

Ancient Origin

The Fertile Crescent of the Middle East was the site of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of
plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in
northern and southern China, Africa’s Sahel, New Guinea and several regions of America. Barley has
been found in archeological sites in Levant, and East of Zagros Mountains in Iran. The eight so called
Neolithic founder crops of agriculture includes emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentills,
bitter vetch, chick peas and flax. Bitter vetch and lentils along with almond and pistachios appear in
Franchthi Cave Greece simultaneously, about 9,000 BC.

By, 7,000 BC, small-scale agriculture reached Egypt. From at least 7,000 BC the Indian subcontinent saw
farming of wheat and barley, as attested by archeological excavation at Mehrgarh in Balochistan.

By, 6,000 BC, mid-scale farming was entrenched on the banks of the Nile. About this time, agriculture
was developed independently in the Far East, with rice, rather than wheat, as the primary crop. Chinese
and Indonesian farmers went on to domesticate taro and beans including mung, soy and azuki. To
complement this new sources of carbohydrates, highly organized net fishing of rivers,

By, 5,000 BC, the Sumerians had developed core agricultural techniques including large scale intensive
cultivation of land, mono-cropping, organized irrigation, and used of specialized labor force, particularly
along the waterway now known as the Shatt al-Arab, from its Persian gulf delta to the confluence of the
Tigris and Euphrates. Middle Ages

During the Middle Ages, Muslim Farmers in North Africa and the near East developed and disseminated
agricultural technologies including irrigation systems based on hydraulic and hydrostatic principles, the
use of machineries and the use water raising machines, dams and reservoirs. They also wrote location-
specific farming manuals, and were instrumental in the wider adoption of crops including sugar cane, rice,
citrus fruits, apricots, cotton, artichokes, aubergines, and saffron.

Modern Era

After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Key crops involved
in the exchange included the tomato, maize, potato, cacao, and tobacco going from the New World to the
old, and several varieties of wheat, spices, coffee and sugar cane going from the Old World to the New.
The most important animal exportations from the Old World to the New were those of the horse and dog
(dog were already present in the pre-Columbian Americas but not in the numbers and breeds suited to
farm works).

Although not usually food animals, the horse (including donkeys and ponies) and dog quickly filled
essential production roles on western hemisphere farms.

By the early 1800s, agricultural techniques, implements, seed stocks and cultivated plants selected and
given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics had so improved that yield per
land unit was many times seen in Middle Ages. With the rapid rise of mechanization in the late 19th and
20th centuries, particularly in the form of the tractor, farming tasks could be done with speed and on a
scale previously impossible. These advances have led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in
the United States, Argentina,

The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and
allowed crops yields to overcome previous constraints. In the past century agriculture has been
characterized by enhanced productivity, the substitution of labor for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides,
selective breeding, mechanization, water pollution and farm subsidies.

In recent years there have been a backlash against the external environmental effects of conventional
agriculture, resulting in the organic movement.

Agricultural exploration expedition, since the late nineteenth century, have been mounted to find new
species adnew agricultural practices in different areas of the world.

There are four (4) main branches of agriculture namely:

1. Livestock Production or Animal Husbandry

2. Crop Production or Agronomy

3. Agricultural Economics

4. Agricultural engineering

I.Livestock Production or Animal Husbandry

Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fiber, milk,
eggs or other products. The term “livestock” encompasses many species and numerous breeds within
animal species which can produce food and other raw materials.

Livestock production or Animal Husbandry has four common classification such as:

1. Nomadic pastoralism is the husbandry of raising animals is viewed as an ideal way of making a living
and the regular movement of all or parts of the society is considered a normal or natural part of life.

Pastoral nomadism is commonly practice where climatic condition produce seasonal pastures but cannot
support sustained stationary agriculture because of the animal’s food limitation.

2. Poultry Farming is the raising of birds domestically or commercially, primarily for meat and eggs as
well as for feathers.

Chickens, turkeys, ducks and geese are of primary importance, while guinea fowl and squabs (young
pigeons) are chiefly of local interest.

3. Swine Farming is the raising and breeding of domestic pigs as livestock, and is a branch of animal
husbandry. Pigs are farmed principally for food (e.g. pork, bacon, gammon) or sometimes skinned.

4. Apiculture is the scientific method of rearing honeybees. The word‘apiculture’ comes from the Latin
word apis meaning bee and colere which means “to culture”. Bees are mainly reared for their honey.

II.Crop Production or Agronomy

It is the science dealing with the cultivation of crops and vegetables on a field scales either under rain fed
or irrigation conditions. These crops are mainly annuals cultivated food. The requirements of each crop
are studied in terms of soil and climate, as well as planting time and techniques, different cultivars,
fertilization, weed, disease,and insect control, as well as the effect of stress factors. Crop Production or
Agronomy includes:

Horticulture is the science and art of growing and caring for plants, especially flowers, fruits, and
vegetables. The word is derived from the Latin hortus which means “garden” and colere which means “to
culture”. As a general term, it covers all forms of garden management, but in ordinary use it refers to
intensive commercial production. Horticulture has 3 branches namely, pomology, olericulture and
floriculture.

a) Pomology- is the branch of botany that studies all fruits, specifically the science of growing fruits and
nuts. The word is derived from the Latin pomum which means “fruit” and logia which means “field of
study”. As a branch of horticulture, it focuses to the cultivation of fruits, nuts, fruit-bearing and nut-bearing
trees/plants for human use and consumption.

b) Olericulture is the science and art of vegetable growing, dealing with the culture of non-woody
(herbaceous) plants for food. The word is derived from the Latin oleris which means “pot herb” and colere
which means “to culture”. As language develops over long period of time, it is simply defined as the
science and art of growing vegetables crops. It deals with the production, storage processing and
marketing of vegetables. It encompasses crop establishment, including cultivar selection, seedbed
preparation and establishment of vegetable crops by seed and transplants. It also includes maintenance
and care of vegetable crop production.

c) Floriculture refers to farming, plant care, propagation, and cultivation with one goal in mind, the
maximum production of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and floristry, comprising the floral
industry. The word is derived from the Latin floris which means “flower” and colere which means “to
culture”.

Therefore, it is the cultivation of flower. To elaborate, floriculture is an entire gardening spectrum that is
geared towards understanding and improving all aspects of bud and flower creation, including indoor
lighting, grow-room requirements, greenhouse needs, plant nutrition, irrigation, pest management, and
breeding new cultivars/strains.

III.Agricultural Economics is study of the allocation, distribution and utilization of the resources used,
along with the commodities produced, by farming. It concerns itself with the study of the production and
consumption of food in both developed and developing countries along with analysis of the policies that
shape the world’s largest country.

IV. Agricultural Engineering is the area of engineering concerned with the design, construction and
improvement of farming equipment and machinery.Agricultural engineers integrate technology with
farming. For example, they design new and improved farming equipment that may work more efficiently,
or perform new tasks. They design and build agricultural infrastructure such as dams, water reservoirs,
warehouses, and other structures. They may also help engineer solutions for pollution control at large
farms. Some agricultural engineers are developing new forms of biofuels from non-food resources like
algae and agricultural waste. Such fuels could economically and sustainably replace gasoline without
jeopardizing the food supply

Agricultural crops are plants that are grown or intentionally managed by man for certain purposes. They
are classified in various terms used worldwide.
Types of Crops

Crops are divided into six falls into categories and they’re as follows:

1. Food Crops

2. Feed Crops

3. Fiber Crops

4. Oil Crops

5. Ornamental Crops

6. Industrial Crops

Descriptions of Crops According to their Categories

I.Food Crops – A plant that is primarily raise, culture and harvest for the human consumption. It has two
sub categories, the field crops and root crops.

a) Field crop is a crop (other than fruits or vegetables) that is grown on a large scale for agricultural
purposes. Examples are wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane and other forage crops. These crops typically
consist of a large majority of agricultural acreage and crop revenues.

b)Root Crops– are underground plant parts edible for human consumption.

II.Feed Crops – A plant that is primarily raise, culture and harvest for the livestock consumption.

III.Fiber Crops – A plant that is primarily raise, culture and harvest for its fibers which are used as raw
material.

IV.Oil Crops – A plant that is primarily raise, culture and harvest as base for biodiesel production.

V.Ornamental Crops– A plant that is primarily raise and culture for decorative purposes especially in
gardens and landscape design projects.

VI.Industrial Crops– A plant that is cultured for their biological materials which are used in industrial
processes into nonedible products.

(Example: Tobacco)

Classification of Crops According to their Reproduction

1. Sexual - plants that develop from a seed or a spore after undergoing union of male and female
gametes.

2. Asexual – plants which reproduce by any vegetative means without the union of the sexual gametes.

Classification of Crops According to Mode of Pollination

I.Naturally Self Pollinated Crops – predominant mode of pollination in this plant is self-pollination.
II.Naturally Cross Pollinated Crops – pollen transfer in these plants is rom another of one flower in a
separate plant.

III.Both Self and Cross Pollination Crops – these plants are largely self-pollinated but in varying
amounts.

Classifications of Crops According to Growth Habits

I.Herb – succulent plants with self-supporting stems.

II.Vines – herbaceous climbing or twining plants without selfsupporting stem.

III.Lianas – woody climbing or twining plants which depend on other plants for vertical support to climb up
to the tree.

IV.Shrubs – a small tree or tree like plants generally less than 5 meters in height but other authorities
restricted to small, erect woody plants.

V.Trees – plants having erect and continuous growth with a large develop of woody tissue, with a single
distinct stem or trunk.

VI.Evergreen – plants that maintain their leaves throughout the year.

VII.Deciduous – plants which naturally shed off or lose leaves annually for extended periods.

Descriptions of Crops According to their Life Span

I.Annual crop is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to production of seed, within one
growing season, and then dies. Annual crops examples are rice, corn and others.

II.Biennial crop is a plant that takes two years to complete its biological lifecycle. Its examples are
cabbage, parsley and others.

III.Perennial crop is a plant that lives more than two years. The term is often used to differentiate a plant
from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also widely used to distinguish plants with little or no
woody growth from trees and shrubs, which are also technically perennials.

TYPES OF COMMERCIAL FOOD CROPS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Food Crop a crop primarily raised and culture for human consumption.

There are 5 major categories of common commercial crops in the Philippines they are the
following: cereal crops, root and tuber crops, sugar crops, vegetable crops, fruit crops.

a) Cereal Crops– are one of the members of grass family with their seed to eat.

b) Root and Tuber Crops – a crop that is root vegetables and thick underground part of the stem which
is edible to consume by human.

c) Sugar Crops – several species of tall perennial grass that are grown for extraction of sugar product.

d) Vegetable Crops – are edible part/s of the plant.

e) Fruit Crops – are groups of different types of fruits that are edible to human consumption.
PLANT PARTS AND ITS FUNCTION

A plant has different parts. The main parts are the roots, stem and the leaves. The root absorbs water
and different nutrients in the ground. The roots also establish the plant as foundation. The stem carries
the water and different nutrients from the ground to the leaves. It also supports the foundation.

The main functions of the root system are absorption of water and minerals from the soil, providing a
proper anchorage to the plant parts, storing reserve food material and synthesis of plant growth
regulators.In majority of the dicotyledonous plants, the direct elongation of the radicle leads to the
formation of primary root which grows inside the soil.

In monocotyledonous plants, the primary root is short lived and is replaced by a large number of roots.
These roots originate from the base of the stem and constitute the fibrous root system.

In some plants, roots arise from parts of the plant other than the radicle and are called adventitious
roots.

The root is covered at the apex by a thimble-like structure called the root cap. It protects the tender
apex of the root as it makes its way through soil. Tap roots of carrot, turnip and adventitious roots of
sweet potato, get swollen and store food. Hanging structures that support a banyan tree are called prop
roots. Similarly, the stems of maize and sugarcane have supporting roots coming out of the lower nodes
of the stem. These are called stilt roots.

In some plants such as Rhizophora growing in swampy areas, many roots come out of the ground and
grow vertically upwards. Such roots, called pneumatophores, help to get oxygen for respiration.

The Stem

The stem of a plant is one of two structural parts of a vascular plant (a plant that has tissues for moving
water and nutrients), the other being the root. The stem is the part above ground which provides support
for leaves and buds. It's like the major highway of a plant, and it's vital for plant life.
The region of the stem where leaves are born are called nodes while internodes are the portions
between two nodes. Stem tendrils which develop from axillary buds, are slender and spirally coiled and
help plants to climb such as in gourds (cucumber, pumpkins,watermelon) and grapevines.

Axillary buds of stems may also get modified into woody, straight and pointed thorns. They protect plants
from browsing animals.

Some plants of arid regions modify their stems into flattened (Opuntia), or fleshy cylindrical (Euphorbia)
structures. They contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis.

Underground stems of some plants such as grass and strawberry, etc., spread to new niches and when
older parts die new plants are formed

The Leaf

Leaf is a flattened structure of a higher plant, typically green and bladelike, that is attached to a stem
directly or via a stalk. Leaves are the main organs of photosynthesis and transpiration. Leaves originate
from shoot apical meristems. Leaf develops at the node and bears a bud in its axil. The axillary bud later
develops into a branch.

A typical leaf consists of three main parts

: leaf base, petiole and lamina.

The petiole help hold the blade to light. Long thin flexible petioles allow leaf blades to flutter in wind,
thereby cooling the leaf and bringing fresh air to leaf surface. The lamina or the leaf blade is the green
expanded part of the leaf with veins and veinlets. There is, usually, a middle prominent vein, which is
known as the midrib. Veins provide rigidity to the leaf blade and act as channels of transport for water,
minerals and food materials

LEAF VENETION

The arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the lamina of leaf is termed as venation. When the veinlets
form a network, the venation is termed as reticulate. When the veins run parallel to each other within a
lamina, the venation is termed as parallel. Leaves of dicotyledonous plants generally possess reticulate
venation, while parallel venation is the characteristic of most monocotyledons.

Modifications of Leaves

Leaves of certain insectivorous plants such as pitcher plant, venusfly trap are also modified leaves for
their food.

Transpiration

Plants absorb mineral nutrients and water from the soil. Not all the water absorbed is utilized by the plant.
The water evaporates through the stomata present on the surface of the leaves by the process of
transpiration.

The evaporation of water from leaves generates a suction pull (the same that you produce when you suck
water through a straw) which can pull water to great heights in the tall trees. Transpiration also cools the
plant.

Water absorption through roots can be increased by keeping the plants

a. in the shade

b. in dim light

c. under the fan

d. covered with a polythene bag

When we place a plant under the fan the speed of air flow is very high.

Transpiration will take place in presence of high air flow through the stomata. Rate of transpiration
increases during windy condition. Increase in the rate of transpiration increases the water absorption also
because when transpiration occurs, it will create a transpiration pull and more water absorption will
takeplace.

Do Plants Also Respire?

In plants each part can independently take in oxygen from the air and give out carbon dioxide. Even roots
can respirPlants carry out photosynthesis only during the day and respiration both during the day time as
well as night. For us oxygen is essential, but for those organisms which do not use it, oxygen is toxic. In
fact, our white blood cells use oxygen to kill invading bacteria. Even for humans, it may be dangerous to
breathe pure oxygen for long.

The Flower

The flower is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms. It is meant for sexual reproduction. Androecium
and gynoecium are reproductive organs. When a flower has both androecium and gynoecium, it is
bisexual. A flower having either only stamens or only carpels is unisexual.

Aestivation: The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to the other members
of the same whorl is known as aestivation.

Androecium is composed of stamens. Each stamen which represents the male reproductive organ
consists of a stalk or a filament and an anther. Each anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has two
chambers, the pollensacs. The pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs. A sterile stamen is called
staminode.

Gynoecium is the female reproductive part of the flower and is made up of one or more carpels. A
carpel consists of three parts namely stigma, style and ovary. After fertilization, the ovules develop into
seeds and the ovary matures into a fruit. Placentation: The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is
known as placentation.

The Fruit

The fruit is a characteristic feature of the flowering plants. It is a mature or ripened ovary, developed
after fertilization. If a fruit is formed without fertilization of the ovary, it is called a parthenocarpic fruit.The
ovules after fertilization, develop into seeds.

Transport of Water and Minerals in Plants

Plants absorb water and minerals by the roots. The roots have root hair. The root hair increase the
surface area of the root for the absorption of water and mineral nutrients dissolved in water. The root hair
is in contact with the water present between the soil particles.
Plants have pipe -like vessels to transport water and nutrients from the soil. The vessels are made of
special cells, forming the vascular tissue. The vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in
the plant is calledthe xylem. The xylem forms a continuous network of channels that connects roots to the
leaves through the stem and branches and thus transport water tothe entire plant leaves synthesize food.
The food has to be transported to all parts of the plant. This is done by the vascular tissue called the
phloem. Thus, xylem and phloem transport substances in plants.