UNIT-1 Introductory Concepts

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to share information
(data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different devices allows users to
communicate more easily. A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that
are linked together. A network connection can be established using either cable or wireless
media. Hardware and software are used to connect computers and tools in any network.

Uses of Computer Networks

 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.

 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.

 Sharing files.

 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.

 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.

Types of Computer Networks

There are mainly five types of Computer Networks

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Types of Computer Networks

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network designed to connect devices
within a short range, typically around one person. It allows your personal devices, like smartphones,
tablets, laptops, and wearables, to communicate and share data with each other. PAN offers a
network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing communication. Its transmission
speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost. This
uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology. Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet,
printer, PDA, etc.
Personal Area Network (PAN)

Types of PAN

 Wireless Personal Area Networks: Wireless Personal Area Networks are created by simply
utilising wireless technologies such as WiFi and Bluetooth. It is a low-range network.

 Wired Personal Area Network: A wired personal area network is constructed using a USB.

Advantages of PAN

 PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network ranges.

 It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.

 It does not require frequent installations and maintenance

 It is easy and portable.

 Needs fewer technical skills to use.

Disadvantages of PAN

 Low network coverage area/range.

 Limited to relatively low data rates.

 Devices are not compatible with each other.

 Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.

Applications of PAN

 Home and Offices

 Organizations and the Business sector

 Medical and Hospital

 School and College Education

 Military and Defense

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects computers
through a common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN
encompasses two or more computers connected over a server. The two important technologies
involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very
high with easy maintenance and low cost. Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library,
laboratory, college, office, etc.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Advantages of a LAN

 Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body controls it, giving it a
privacy.
  High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps) and data transfer rate
comparatively to WAN.

 Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of communications

transmission medium such as an Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted pair),
fiber and wireless transmission.

 Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion and
maintenance and LAN installation is relatively easy to use, good scalability.

Disadvantages of LAN

 The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high because there is special
software required to make a server.

 Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers, cables are costly.

 LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well as Internet history of each
and every LAN user. Hence, the privacy of the users are violated

 LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area

 Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be accessed by an
unauthorized user, can cause a serious data security threat.

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is usually
used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area that is, it
spreads across several buildings within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a
range from 1km to 5km. Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and
moderate cost. Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.

Campus Area Network (CAN)

Advantages of CAN

 Speed: Communication within a CAN takes place over Local Area Network (LAN) so data
transfer rate between systems is little bit fast than Internet.

 Security: Network administrators of campus take care of network by continuous monitoring,

tracking and limiting access. To protect network from unauthorized access firewall is placed
between network and internet.

 Cost effective: With a little effort and maintenance, network works well by providing fast
data transfer rate with multi-departmental network access. It can be enabled wirelessly,
where wiring and cabling costs can be managed. So to work with in a campus using CAN is
cost-effective in view of performance

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that
connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city,
town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a
range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes
with a high cost. Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area
within multiple buildings, etc.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Advantages of MAN

 MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.

 The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.

 It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus architecture.

 MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the users.

 MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it easier to
monitor and manage network resources and security.

Disadvantages of MAN

 The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and maintain.

 This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber optics.

 It provides less fault tolerance.

 The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance
through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many
locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each
other with a range above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission
speed is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost. The most common
example of WAN is the Internet.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Advantages of WAN

 It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to transmit data
quickly and cheaply.

 The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data provided by
WAN.

 The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be minimised.

 WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and allows to
exchange data and do business at global level.
Disadvantages of WAN

 Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.

 The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.

 Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.

 The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and high
number of connected system within the network.

Comparison between Different Computer Networks

Parameters PAN LAN CAN MAN WAN

Campus Metropolitan
Personal Area Local Area Wide Area
Full Name Area Area
Network Network Network
Network Network

Technolo Bluetooth, Ethernet & FDDI, CDDi. Leased Line,

Ethernet
gy IrDA,Zigbee Wifi ATM Dial-Up

Range 1-100 m Upto 2km 1 – 5 km 5-50 km Above 50 km

Transmiss
Very High Very High High Average Low
ion Speed

Ownershi Private or Private or

Private Private Private
p Public Public

Maintena
Very Easy Easy Moderate Difficult Very Difficult
nce

Cost Very Low Low Moderate High Very High

Other Types of Computer Networks

 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

 Storage Area Network (SAN)

 System-Area Network (SAN)

 Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

  Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

 Virtual Private Network (VPN)

 Home Area Network (HAN)

1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

WLAN is a type of computer network that acts as a local area network but makes use of wireless
network technology like Wi-Fi. This network doesn’t allow devices to communicate over physical
cables like in LAN but allows devices to communicate wirelessly. The most common example of
WLAN is Wi-Fi.

There are several computer networks available; more information is provided below.

2. Storage Area Network (SAN)

SAN is a type of computer network that is high-speed and connects groups of storage devices to
several servers. This network does not depend on LAN or WAN. Instead, a SAN moves the storage
resources from the network to its high-powered network. A SAN provides access to block-level data
storage. Examples of SAN are a network of disks accessed by a network of servers.

3. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

A POLAN is a type of computer network that is an alternative to a LAN. POLAN uses optical splitters
to split an optical signal from a single strand of single-mode optical fiber to multiple signals to
distribute users and devices. In short, POLAN is a point to multipoint LAN architecture.

4. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

EPN is a type of computer network mostly used by businesses that want a secure connection over
various locations to share computer resources.

5. Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A VPN is a type of computer network that extends a private network across the internet and lets the
user send and receive data as if they were connected to a private network even though they are not.
Through a virtual point-to-point connection users can access a private network remotely. VPN
protects you from malicious sources by operating as a medium that gives you a protected network
connection.

6. Home Area Network (HAN)

Many of the houses might have more than a computer. To interconnect those computers and with
other peripheral devices, a network should be established similar to the local area network (LAN)
within that home. Such a type of network that allows a user to interconnect multiple computers and
other digital devices within the home is referred to as Home Area Network (HAN). HAN encourages
sharing of resources, files, and programs within the network. It supports both wired and wireless
communication.
Internetwork

An internet network is defined as two or more computer network LANs, WANs, or computer network
segments that are connected by devices and configured with a local addressing system. The method
is known as internetworking. There are two types of Internetwork.

 Intranet: An internal network within an organization that enables employees to share data,
collaborate, and access resources. Intranets are not accessible to the public and use private
IP addresses.

 Extranet: Extranets extend the intranet to authorized external users, such as business
partners or clients. They provide controlled access to specific resources while maintaining
security.

Advantages of Computer Network

 Central Storage of Data: Files are stored on a central storage database which helps to easily
access and available to everyone.

 Connectivity: A single connection can be routed to connect multiple computing devices.

 Sharing of Files: Files and data can be easily shared among multiple devices which helps in
easily communicating among the organization.

 Security through Authorization: Computer Networking provides additional security and

protection of information in the system.

Disadvantages of Computer Network

 Virus and Malware: A virus is a program that can infect other programs by modifying them.
Viruses and Malware can corrupt the whole network.

 High Cost of Setup: The initial setup of Computer Networking is expensive because it
consists of a lot of wires and cables along with the device.

 loss of Information: In case of a System Failure, might lead to some loss of data.

 Management of Network: Management of a Network is somehow complex for a person, it

requires training for its proper use.
What are the types of service in CN?

 Internet and cloud connectivity.

 Branch office and campus connectivity.

 Private data center services.

 Secure cloud-connectivity services.

 Virtual network services.

What are the types of channel in CN?

 Simplex

 Half-Duplex

 Full-Duplex

What is WAN-as-a-service?

One type of cloud-based WAN model is WAN-as-a-service. WAN-as-a-service options are intended to
take the place of legacy WAN arrangements, which are hard to scale up, rely on hardware, and
require communication protocols like multiprotocol label switching (MPLS).

A Brief History of the Internet

Sharing Resources

The Internet started in the 1960s as a way for government researchers to share information.
Computers in the '60s were large and immobile and in order to make use of information stored in
any one computer, one had to either travel to the site of the computer or have magnetic computer
tapes sent through the conventional postal system.

Another catalyst in the formation of the Internet was the heating up of the Cold War. The Soviet
Union's launch of the Sputnik satellite spurred the U.S. Defense Department to consider ways
information could still be disseminated even after a nuclear attack. This eventually led to the
formation of the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), the network that
ultimately evolved into what we now know as the Internet. ARPANET was a great success but
membership was limited to certain academic and research organizations who had contracts with the
Defense Department. In response to this, other networks were created to provide information
sharing.

January 1, 1983 is considered the official birthday of the Internet. Prior to this, the various computer
networks did not have a standard way to communicate with each other. A new communications
protocol was established called Transfer Control Protocol/Internetwork Protocol (TCP/IP). This
allowed different kinds of computers on different networks to "talk" to each other. ARPANET and the
Defense Data Network officially changed to the TCP/IP standard on January 1, 1983, hence the birth
of the Internet. All networks could now be connected by a universal language.
The image above is a scale model of the UNIVAC I (the name stood for Universal Automatic
Computer) which was delivered to the Census Bureau in 1951. It weighed some 16,000 pounds, used
5,000 vacuum tubes, and could perform about 1,000 calculations per second. It was the first
American commercial computer, as well as the first computer designed for business use. (Business
computers like the UNIVAC processed data more slowly than the IAS-type machines, but were
designed for fast input and output.) The first few sales were to government agencies, the A.C.
Nielsen Company, and the Prudential Insurance Company. The first UNIVAC for business applications
was installed at the General Electric Appliance Division, to do payroll, in 1954. By 1957 Remington-
Rand (which had purchased the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation in 1950) had sold forty-six
machines.

ISP stands for Internet Service Provider. An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is an
organization that provides internet access to individuals, businesses and other organizations.
They connect us to the internet, either through wired connections (like fiber or cable) or
wireless methods (like Wi-Fi or mobile data).
History
The first Internet Service Provider was Telenet. Telenet was the commercialized version of
the ARPANET – a precursor to the internet, of sorts. Telenet was introduced in 1974. Since
then, many Internet Service Providers have entered the scene and this was partly because of
the proliferation of the internet as a commodity that fuelled the consumerist attitude of the
people. Pretty soon, an Internet Service Provider called “The World” came to be in vogue and
ever since it started serving its customers today in 1989 has cemented itself as the first
archetypal Internet Service Provider. Examples of major Internet Service Providers include
Google Fiber, Verizon, Jio, AT&T etc.

Characteristics of Internet Service Provider

 Email Account: Many Internet Service Providers offer an email address to their
consumers.
 User Support: Professionals and an increasing number of lay users prefer an ISP that
can provide them with customer support so that they have someone they can refer to if
things go awry.
 Access to High-Speed Internet: Probably the most obvious item on this list as this
feature of an Internet Service Provider lies literally in its name. Furthermore, the
 higher the speed an Internet Service Provider can offer one, the better it’s standing in
the market and the more customers it can attract.
 Spam Blocker: An Internet Service Provider that hinders its customers’ productivity
by way of not blocking spam and displaying frequent ads is not something that is
generally favored in the market today. Therefore, many of the Internet Service
Providers offer spam blocking features to their customers.
 Web Hosting: Some of the ISPs offer web hosting services to their clientele as well.
What do ISPs do?
ISPs (Internet Service Providers) provide access to the internet and various related services.
Their main functions include:
 Internet Access – Connect users to the internet via DSL, fiber optic, cable, or
wireless connections.
 Web Hosting – Offer hosting services for websites.
 Email Services – Provide email accounts for communication.
 Online Security – Offer antivirus, firewalls, and spam protection.
 Technical Support – Help users troubleshoot internet-related issues.
 Domain Registration – Allow customers to register and manage domain names.
 Bundled Services – Provide internet along with TV, phone, and streaming packages.
Different Types of ISP Connections
 DSL
 Wi-Fi broadband
 Mobile broadband
 Fiber optic broadband
 Cable broadband
List of ISP
 Reliance Jio
 Vodafone Idea
 Airtel
 BSNL
 Hathway
How to Choose an ISP?
Choosing an ISP involves several issues, which may range from factors that explain the right
option for your needs.
 Internet Speed : First, understand the amount of internet speed you will need,
depending on whether you are a severe gamer, a movie freak, or a work-from-home
professional. Secondly, opt for an ISP that gives you appropriate speed for your usage.
 Types of Connections : In your locality there are distinct connections like DSL,
cable, fiber optic or wireless ones which should be taken into consideration while
making a decision on what ISP will grant the best option for particular type of
connection needed.
 Data Caps : See if an ISP has put caps on how much data you can use. If you are a
heavy user of data, then go for providers who have unlimited data plans.
 Reliability : Check the ISP’s record on how reliable and available the connection can
be. Check reviews and comments from other customers to see how reliable service
has been.
 Customer Service : How is their customer support? Naturally, with a responsive and
competent customer support team, you will be better placed to have any problems
resolved.
 Prices and Packages : Prices and packages offered by different ISPs. Also consider
the monthly cost of the subscription and other fees. Contract terms are also a factor in
subscription.
 Other Services : Check whether the ISP offers services such as web hosting, email
accounts, or security features that will suit your requirements.
 Availability : Check if the ISP services are available in your area. Not all ISPs
provide their services in specific locations, so ensure that the provider is readily
available where you belong.
With these factors in mind and further researching the options, you will be able to come up
with the right choice of ISP according to your needs and preferences in using the internet.
Advantages of Internet Service Provider
 The customer need not then bother with either the technicalities or finances of
investing and inventing a web browser to work with. An ISP can readily do all of this
for its customers.
 Many ISPs, being professional companies, provide its clientele with high-speed
internet and that is not possible if one decides to sidesteps these companies.
 ISPs offer a very high degree of reliability and availability
 The ISPs are secure – they offer a tremendous deal of protection against viruses and
use only the latest software patches whilst operating and thereby, maintaining the
integrity of the browser.
  User do not need to invest in user’s own web server.
 ISP’s should give the best uptime guarantee.

Disadvantages of Internet Service Provider

 Because of the range of options available in the market and due to cut-throat
competition, some of the ISPs have been accused of violating the customers’ trust by
way of inflated pricing, data losses, etc. It is true that using an ISP makes the
customer entirely dependent on it.
 If an Internet Service Provider is stretched thin because of hosting too many sites on a
shared server, it can compromise the quality of the customers’ data by way of slow
download rates and poor performance of websites.
 User need to trust user’s ISP for uptime and security.
 ISP can directly affect user if the it gets blacklisted.
Applications of Internet Service Provider
 Router Management Apps: Help you set up and manage your home Wi-Fi, like
changing your Wi-Fi password or seeing which devices are connected.
 Data Usage Apps: Let you track how much data you’re using. This is helpful if you
have a limit on your data usage.
 Speed Test Apps: Allow you to check how fast your internet connection is, by
measuring download and upload speeds.
 Customer Support Apps: Let you contact support for help, troubleshoot problems, or
manage your account.
 Billing Apps: Let you view and pay your internet bills, change your plan, or check
your payment history.

Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how
computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.
Types of Network Architecture
Computer networks can be classified based on architecture into two primary types:
 Peer-to-Peer Architecture
 Client/Server Architecture
 Types of
Network Architecture
What is Peer-to-Peer Architecture?
In the P2P (Peer-to-Peer) network, “peers” generally represent computer system. These peers
are connected to each other with help of Internet. Files might be shared directly without
requirement of central server among these systems on the network. It can be said that each of
computers on P2P network usually becomes file server even as client also.
In this architecture, system is generally decomposed into various computational nodes that
contain the same and equivalent capabilities, abilities, and responsibilities. In this network,
tasks are allocated at each and every device available on network. This network is very
essential and important for small environments, usually up to at least 10 computers. There is
also no separate division as clients and servers. Each and every computer in this network are
treated same and equally and might send even receive message directly. This P2P network is
generally useful in various fields such as business, education, military, etc.

Peer-to-Peer
Architecture
Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Architecture
 P2P network is less costly and cheaper. It is affordable.
  P2P is very simple and not complex. This is because all computers that are connected
in network communication in an efficient and well-mannered with each other.
 It is very easy and simple to set up and manage as installation and setup is less
painless and computer manages itself. This is because of built-in support in
modern operating systems.
 Security is one of major issues in this type of network.
 If computer working with some of resources is down and sharing of resources might
become major problem.
 Performance, security, and access can also become major problem with an increase in
number of computers on this network.
Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Architecture
 It is more difficult to manage security policies consistently.
 Each peer demands individual care and control.
 As the network expands in size, it may become inefficient.

What is Client/Server Architecture?

CSN (Client/Server Network) is type of computer network in which one of centralized and
powerful computers (commonly called as server) is hub to which many of personal
computers that are less powerful or workstations (commonly known as clients) are connected.
It is type of system where clients are connected to server to just share or use resources. These
servers are generally considered as heart of system. This type of network is more stable and
scalable as compared to P2P network. In this architecture, system is generally decomposed
into client and server processor or processes.

Client/
Server Architecture
Advantages of Client/Server Architecture
 A special Network Operating System (NOS) is provided by server to provide
resources to many users that request them.
 It is also very easy and simple to set up and manage data updates. This is because data
is generally stored in centralized manner on server.
 The server usually controls resources and data security.
 This network also boosts speed of sharing resources.
 If anyhow server goes down or crashes, entire will be affected by this.
 It is very expensive as compared to P2P. This is due to need for server with
more memory as well as need for many networking devices such as
hubs, routers, switches, etc.
 Cost of NOS being provided is very high.
Disadvantages of Client/Server Architecture
 If the server fails, clients may lose access to services.
 Setting up servers requires a higher investment in hardware and software.
 Managing servers requires skilled personnel.
What Does a Computer Network Architect Do?
A computer network architect is responsible for designing and building communication
networks for organizations. Their main tasks include:
 Designing, Modeling, Testing, and Troubleshooting Networks: This involves
creating plans for networks, testing them out, and solving any problems that arise.
 Testing and Inspecting Existing Networks: You’ll need to examine current networks
to ensure they’re working correctly and identify any issues that need fixing.
 Upgrading Networks (Hardware and Software): Keeping networks up-to-date by
improving both the physical equipment and the software they run on.
 Analyzing and Fixing Security Weaknesses: Identifying and resolving any
vulnerabilities in networks to keep them safe from cyber threats.
 Developing Technical Documentation: Creating detailed guides and instructions for
building and maintaining networks.
 Installing and Maintaining Hardware Components: Setting up and looking after
the physical parts of networks, like routers, cables, and adapters.
How to Become a Computer Network Architect?
Computer network architects usually have a bachelor’s degree in a computer-related field and
some experience in a related job, like being a network or computer systems administrator.
Education
Computer network architects usually have at least a bachelor’s degree in computer
and information technology, engineering, or a related field. These degree programs provide
hands-on experience in subjects like network security and database design, preparing
architects to work with various network technologies.
However, the specific education needed can vary. Some employers might hire candidates
without a bachelor’s degree, while others have no preference. Some even prefer candidates
with a master’s degree.
Work Experience in a Related Occupation
Network architects usually require several years of experience in working with information
technology (IT) systems. Often, they have worked as network and computer systems
administrators or in similar roles like database administrators or computer systems analysts

What Skills Does a Computer Network Architect Need?

To be successful as a computer network architect, you need a mix of technical and
interpersonal skills. Here’s what you should have:
 Design and Modeling Skills: You’ll be creating and visualizing network systems, so
being adept at designing and modeling is crucial.
 Cybersecurity Knowledge: Ensuring network security is paramount. You must be
alert against threats and know how to support the network against potential attacks.
 Technical Equipment Proficiency: Understanding the hardware components of
networks like servers, routers, and modems is essential for implementing effective
designs.
 Soft Skills: In addition to technical prowess, you’ll need soft skills to excel. Problem-
solving skills are vital for troubleshooting issues that arise in complex networks.
Effective communication skills are necessary for collaborating with other IT
professionals and sometimes providing training to users.
Where Do Computer Network Architects Work?
Computer network architects are highly demanded because every business, big or small,
relies on internet access and communication systems. They can work in various industries,
including:
 Cloud computing services
 Financial service providers
 Insurance companies
 Corporations
 Telecommunications providers
 Educational institutions
  Healthcare centers
 Government agencies
 Manufacturing industries

What is Network Protocol?

A network protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between different
devices in the network. It determines what is being communicated, how it is being
communicated, and when it is being communicated. It permits connected devices to
communicate with each other, irrespective of internal and structural differences.
How do Network Protocols Work?
It is essential to understand how devices communicate over a network by recognizing
network protocols. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), the most widely used model,
illustrates how computer systems interact with one another over a network. The
communication mechanism between two network devices is shown by seven different layers
in the OSI model. Every layer in the OSI model works based on different network protocols.
At every layer, one or more protocols are there for network communication. To enable
network-to-network connections, the Internet Protocol (IP), for instance, routes data by
controlling information like the source and destination addresses of data packets. It is known
as a network layer protocol.
The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories:
 Network Communication
 Network Management
 Network Security

1. Network Communication
Communication protocols are really important for the functioning of a network. They are so
crucial that it is not possible to have computer networks without them. These protocols
formally set out the rules and formats through which data is transferred. These protocols
handle syntax, semantics, error detection, synchronization, and authentication
2. Network Management
These protocols assist in describing the procedures and policies that are used in monitoring,
maintaining, and managing the computer network. These protocols also help in
communicating these requirements across the network to ensure stable communication.
Network management protocols can also be used for troubleshooting connections between a
host and a client.
3. Network Security
These protocols secure the data in passage over a network. These protocols also determine
how the network secures data from any unauthorized attempts to extract or review data.
These protocols make sure that no unauthorized devices, users, or services can access the
network data. Primarily, these protocols depend on encryption to secure data.
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how different
computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7
layers and each layer has specific functions and responsibilities. This layered approach makes
it easier for different devices and technologies to work together. OSI Model provides a clear
structure for data transmission and managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely used
as a reference to understand how network systems function.

Layers of the OSI Model

There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in handling data. All
the layers are mentioned below:
 Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer

Layer 1 – Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in
the form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node
to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s
and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
Common physical layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.
Physical Layer
Functions of the Physical Layer
 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the
number of bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh topology.
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex
and full duplex.
Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over
the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as
Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and
Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking, “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply
with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender
to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished
by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which
it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
  Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple
devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has
control over the channel at a given time.
Layer 3 – Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver’s
IP address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is
referred to as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers
and switches.
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source
to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network
layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed
in the header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device
uniquely and universally.
Layer 4 – Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found. Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.
At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.
 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually.
For example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port
number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many
applications have default ports assigned.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards
the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
  Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session)
layer and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a
header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the
transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port
address. Thus, by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the
message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
Layer 5 – Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections,
management of connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides
authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely, and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full duplex.
Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in their browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer
which provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is
compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and
1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Layer 6 – Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application
layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network. Protocols used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or
code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext, and the decrypted data is known
as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Layer 7 – Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services
to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used
in the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Application Layer
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control
files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access
for global information about various objects and services.

How Data Flows in the OSI Model?

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of
OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then
climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.

Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:

 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly,
and these steps are reversed upon arrival.
We can understand how data flows through OSI Model with the help of an example
mentioned below.
Let us suppose, Person A sends an e-mail to his friend Person B.
Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his
email to send. (This happens at Application Layer).
Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for data transmission like
encrypting data and formatting it for transmission.
Step 3: At Session Layer, there is a connection established between the sender and
receiver on the internet.
Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds
sequence number and error-checking information to maintain the reliability of the
information.
Step 5: At Network Layer, addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route
for transfer.
Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC
address is added for local devices and then it checks for error using error detection.
Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/
optical signals over a physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.
After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Person B, the process will reverse and decrypt
the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Person B email client.
Please refer the below animation for detailed flow.

Protocols Used in the OSI Layers

Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

Establishing
Physical
1 – Physical
Connections Bits USB, SONET/SDH, etc.
Layer
between
Devices.

Node to Node
2 – Data
Delivery of Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Link Layer
Message.

3 – Network Transmission of Packets IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF,

Layer data from one etc.
host to another,
 Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

located in
different
networks.

Take Service Segments

from Network (for TCP)
4 –
Layer and or
Transport TCP, UDP, SCTP, etc.
provide it to the Datagram
Layer
Application s (for
Layer. UDP)

Establishes
Connection,
Maintenance,
5 – Session NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP,
Ensures Data
Layer etc.
Authentication
and Ensures
security.

Data from the

application
layer is
6 –
extracted and TLS/SSL, MIME, JPEG,
Presentatio Data
manipulated in PNG, ASCII, etc.
n Layer
the required
format for
transmission.

Helps in
identifying the
7 –
client and FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHC
Application Data
synchronizing P, etc.
Layer
communication
.
Why Does the OSI Model Matter?
The OSI Model matters because it provides the user a clear structure of “how the data
moves in the network?”. As the OSI Model consists of 7 layers, each layer has its specific
role, and due to which it helps in understanding, identifying and solving the complex
network problems easily by focusing on one of the layers not the entire network.
As the modern Internet does not prefer the OSI Model, but still, the OSI Model is still
very helpful for solving network problems. It helps people understanding network
concepts very easily.
Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Interconnection. Protocol/Internet Protocol.

OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.

Package delivery is guaranteed in OSI Package delivery is not guaranteed in the

Model. TCP/IP Model.

In the OSI model, only layers 1,2 and All layers of the TCP/IP model are
3 are necessary for data transmission. needed for data transmission.

Layers are integrated; some layers are

Protocols at each layer is independent
required by other layers of TCP/IP
of the other layer.
model.

OSI Model is a conceptual framework, Widely used in actual networks like

less used in practical applications. Internet and Communication Systems.
OSI vs TCP/IP
Advantages of OSI Model
The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7 different layers.
Its advantages include:
 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to understand
and troubleshoot.
 It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed functions and
protocols.
 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.
 It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates separately.
Disadvantages of OSI Model
 The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to understand
for beginners.
 In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the Internet protocol
suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model is not always directly applicable.
 Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations, which can make
the process more time-consuming and less efficient.
 The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it’s great for
understanding concepts but not always practical for implementation.
TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the Internet.
This model defines how data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable communication
between devices. It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport
Layer, and the Application Layer. Each layer has specific functions that help manage different
aspects of network communication, making it essential for understanding and working with
modern networks.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is
based on standard protocols. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It
contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model. In this article, we are going to
discuss the TCP/IP model in detail.
TCP/IP model was developed alongside the creation of the ARPANET, which later became
the foundation of the modern internet. It was designed with a focus on the practical aspects of
networking at the time. The lower-level hardware details and physical transmission medium
were largely abstracted away in favor of higher-level networking protocols.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another.
The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver
will receive the same information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message
reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and
combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end. The TCP/IP model is used in the context of the real-
world internet, where a wide range of physical media and network technologies are in use.
Rather than specifying a particular Physical Layer, the TCP/IP model allows for flexibility in
adapting to different physical implementations.
Difference Between TCP and IP

TCP (Transmission Control

Feature Protocol) IP (Internet Protocol)

Ensures reliable, ordered, and Provides addressing and

Purpose error-checked delivery of data routing of packets across
between applications. networks.

Type Connection-oriented Connectionless

 TCP (Transmission Control
Feature Protocol) IP (Internet Protocol)

Manages data transmission Routes packets of data from

Function between devices, ensuring data the source to the destination
integrity and order. based on IP addresses.

No, IP itself does not handle

Yes, includes error checking
Error Handling errors; relies on upper-layer
and recovery mechanisms.
protocols like TCP.

Yes, includes flow control

Flow Control No
mechanisms.

Yes, manages network

Congestion Control No
congestion.

Breaks data into smaller

Breaks data into packets but
Data Segmentation packets and reassembles them
does not handle reassembly.
at the destination.

Header Size Larger, 20-60 bytes Smaller, typically 20 bytes

Does not guarantee delivery,

Reliability Provides reliable data transfer
reliability, or order.

Transmission Yes, acknowledges receipt of

No
Acknowledgment data packets.

How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?

Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP
Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have to be
recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same data, and this thing happens to maintain
the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the
data first go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the
same way at the receiver’s end.
For more, you can refer to TCP/IP in Computer Networking.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
 Application Layer
 Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
 Network/Internet Layer(IP)
 Network Access Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:
TCP/IP and OSI
1. Network Access Layer
The Network Access Layer represents a collection of applications that require network
communication. This layer is responsible for generating data and initiating connection
requests. It operates on behalf of the sender to manage data transmission, while the Network
Access layer on the receiver’s end processes and manages incoming data. In this article, we
will focus on its role from the receiver’s perspective.
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by network access
layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by this layer. Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer
protocols.
2. Internet or Network Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP:IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet
headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using
currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number
when compared to the number of users.
 ICMP:ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within
IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems.
 ARP:ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware
address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP,
Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols
that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one
device to another across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address,
which is used to identify the device and determine the route that packets should take to reach
it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend. When you
click “send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data, which are then sent to the
Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer assigns an IP address to each packet and uses
routing tables to determine the best route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The
packet is then forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all
of the packets have been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble them into the
original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email from your
computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and routing tables to determine the
best route for the packets to take, and it ensures that the packets are delivered to the correct
destination. Without the Internet Layer, it would not be possible to send data across the
Internet.
3. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit
missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end
communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were
physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles
character-by-character transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that
establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point
that closes the connection make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP , the other transport layer
protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP.
Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it
eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.
4. Application Layer
The Application Layer in the TCP/IP model combines the functions of three layers from
the OSI model: the Application, Presentation, and Session layers. This layer is analogous
to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end communication and
error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of
data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS:HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the
World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers.
HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure
Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign
in, authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH:SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to
Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted
connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
  NTP:NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on
our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank
transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose
you carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the
server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model that is
responsible for providing communication between hosts (computers or other devices) on a
network. It is also known as the transport layer.
Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:
 Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is transferred
reliably between hosts by using techniques like error correction and flow control. For
example, if a packet of data is lost during transmission, the host-to-host layer can
request that the packet be retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.
 Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible for breaking up
large blocks of data into smaller segments that can be transmitted over the network,
and then reassembling the data at the destination. This allows data to be transmitted
more efficiently and helps to avoid overloading the network.
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is responsible for
multiplexing data from multiple sources onto a single network connection, and then
demultiplexing the data at the destination. This allows multiple devices to share the
same network connection and helps to improve the utilization of the network.
 End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a connection-oriented
service that allows hosts to communicate with each other end-to-end, without the need
for intermediate devices to be involved in the communication.
Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to send a file to host B.
The host-to-host layer in host A will break the file into smaller segments, add error correction
and flow control information, and then transmit the segments over the network to host B. The
host-to-host layer in host B will receive the segments, check for errors, and reassemble the
file. Once the file has been transferred successfully, the host-to-host layer in host B will
acknowledge receipt of the file to host A.
In this example, the host-to-host layer is responsible for providing a reliable connection
between host A and host B, breaking the file into smaller segments, and reassembling the
segments at the destination. It is also responsible for multiplexing and demultiplexing the
data and providing end-to-end communication between the two hosts.
Why TCP/IP Model Does Not Have Physical Layer
The physical layer is not covered by the TCP/IP model because the data link layer is
considered the point at which the interface occurs between the TCP/IP stock and the
underlying network hardware. Also, it is designed to be independent of the underlying
physical media. This allows TCP/IP to be flexible and adaptable to different types of physical
connections, such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, fiber optics, or even older technologies like dial-up
modems. The physical layer is typically handled by hardware components and standards
specific to the physical medium being used, like Ethernet cables or radio waves for Wi-Fi.

Other Common Internet Protocols

TCP/IP Model covers many Internet Protocols. The main rule of these Internet Protocols is
how the data is validated and sent over the Internet. Some Common Internet Protocols
include:
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):HTTP takes care of Web Browsers and
Websites.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol):FTP takes care of how the file is to be sent over the
Internet.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):SMTP is used to send and receive data.
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

TCP/IP OSI

OSI refers to Open Systems

TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and

OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the application layer
presentation layers.
itself.

TCP/IP follows connectionless a horizontal

OSI follows a vertical approach.
approach.

The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not In the OSI model, the transport layer
provide assurance delivery of packets. provides assurance delivery of packets.

While in the OSI model, Protocols are

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in
better covered and are easy to replace
TCP/IP model.
with the technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only provides Connectionless and connection-oriented

connectionless (IP) services. The transport services are provided by the network
layer (TCP) provides connections. layer in the OSI model.
Advantages of TCP/IP Model
 Interoperability : The TCP/IP model allows different types of computers and
networks to communicate with each other, promoting compatibility and cooperation
among diverse systems.
 Scalability : TCP/IP is highly scalable, making it suitable for both small and large
networks, from local area networks (LANs) to wide area networks (WANs) like the
internet.
 Standardization : It is based on open standards and protocols, ensuring that different
devices and software can work together without compatibility issues.
 Flexibility : The model supports various routing protocols, data types, and
communication methods, making it adaptable to different networking needs.
 Reliability : TCP/IP includes error-checking and retransmission features that ensure
reliable data transfer, even over long distances and through various network
conditions.
Disadvantages of TCP/IP Model
 Complex Configuration : Setting up and managing a TCP/IP network can be
complex, especially for large networks with many devices. This complexity can lead
to configuration errors.
 Security Concerns : TCP/IP was not originally designed with security in mind. While
there are now many security protocols available (such as SSL/TLS), they have been
added on top of the basic TCP/IP model, which can lead to vulnerabilities.
 Inefficiency for Small Networks : For very small networks, the overhead and
complexity of the TCP/IP model may be unnecessary and inefficient compared to
simpler networking protocols.
 Limited by Address Space : Although IPv6 addresses this issue, the older IPv4
system has a limited address space, which can lead to issues with address exhaustion
in larger networks.
 Data Overhead : TCP, the transport protocol, includes a significant amount of
overhead to ensure reliable transmission. This can reduce efficiency, especially for
small data packets or in networks where speed is crucial.

Physical Components of Computer Network

The physical components of a computer network include hardware devices and media that
enable connectivity and data exchange between devices. The server, client, peer, transmission
media, and connecting devices make up the hardware components. A computer network is
made up of several computers connected so that resources and data can be shared. In this
article, we will discuss every point about the physical component of a computer network.
Types of Physical Components
A computer network consists of several physical components. In other words, two or more
devices are connected via a computer network to exchange an almost infinite amount of data
and services. Here Below are some physical components of computer Networks:
1. NIC(Network Interface Card)
NIC or Network Interface Card is a network adapter used to connect the computer to the
network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique ID that is written
on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface
between the computer and the router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device, which means it
works on the network model’s physical and data link layers.
Types of NIC
 Wired NIC: Cables and Connectors use Wired NIC to transfer data.
 Wireless NIC: These connect to a wireless network such as Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.
2. HUB
A hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches,
for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot
filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision
domain of all hosts connected through hub remains one. Hub does not have any routing table
to store the data of ports and map destination addresses., the routing table is used to
send/broadcast information across all the ports.

HUB
Types of HUB
 Active HUB: Active HUB regenerates and amplifies the electric signal before
sending them to all connected device. This hub is suitable to transmit data for long
distance connections over the network.
  Passive HUB: As the name suggests it does not amplify or regenerate electric signal,
it is the simplest types of Hub among all and it is not suitable for long-distnace
connections.
 Switching HUB: This is also known as intelligent HUB, they provide some
additional functionality over active and passive hubs. They analyze data packets and
make decisions based on MAC address and they are operated on DLL(Data Link
Layer).
3. Router
A Router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The
router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and
have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the
data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

Router
Types of Router
There are several types of routers available in the market, Some of them are mentioned in the
given link: Types of Routers
4. Modem
A Modem is a short form of Modulator/Demodulator. The Modem is a hardware
component/device that can connect computers and other devices such as routers and switches
to the internet. Modems convert or modulate the analog signals coming from telephone wire
into a digital form that is in the form of 0s and 1s.
Modem
Types of Modem
There are multiple types of Modem available you can visit the page where you find Types of
Modems
5. Switch
A Switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large
number of ports implies less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device.
The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient
as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the
correct port only.

Switches
Types of Switch
There are different types of switches in computer networks, visit the webpage and learn how
many Types of Switches are there.
6. Nodes
Node is a term used to refer to any computing devices such as computers that send and
receive network packets across the network.
Types of nodes
 End Nodes: These types of nodes are going to be the starting point or the end point of
communication. E.g., computers, security cameras, network printers, etc.
 Intermediary Nodes: These nodes are going to be in between the starting point or
end point of the end nodes. E.g., Switches, Bridges, Routers, cell towers, etc.
7. Media
It is also known as Link which is going to carry data from one side to another side. This link
can be Wired Medium (Guided Medium) and Wireless Medium (Unguided Medium). It is of
two types:
7.1 Wired Medium
  Ethernet: Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology, which is defined under
IEEE standards 802.3. There are two types of Ethernet:
 Fibre Optic Cable: In fibre optic cable data is transferred in the form of light waves.

Fibre Optic Cable

 Coaxial Cable: Coaxial Cable is mainly used for audio and video communications.

Coaxial Cable
 USB Cable: USB Stands for Universal Serial Bus it is mainly used to connect PCs
and smartphones.

USB
7.2 Wireless Medium
 Infrared (E.g. short-range communication – TV remote control).
 Radio (E.g. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi).
 Microwaves (E.g. Cellular system).
  Satellite (E.g. Long range communications – GPS).
8. Repeater
Repeater is an important component of computer networks as it is used to regenerate and
amplify signal in the computer networks. Repeaters are used to improve the quality of the
networks and they are operated on the Physical Layer of the OSI Model.

Repeater
Types of Repeaters
There are several types of repeaters based on specifications you can check by tapping the
link Types of Repeaters.
9. Server
A server is a computer program that provides various functionality to another computer
program. The server plays a vital role in facilitating communication, data storage, etc. Servers
have more data storage as compared to normal computers. They are designed for the specific
purpose of handling multiple requests from clients.

Servers
What is a Server?
A server is a hardware device or software that processes requests sent over a network and
replies to them. A client is the device that submits a request and waits for a response from the
server. The computer system that accepts requests for online files and transmits those files to
the client is referred to as a “server” in the context of the Internet.

What is a Server?
A Server is a program or a device that provides functionality for called clients which are other
programs or devices. This architecture is called the client-server model.
A single overall computation is distributed across multiple processes or devices. Servers can
provide various functionalities called services. These services include sharing data or
resources among multiple clients or performing computations for a client. Multiple clients
can be served by a single server, and a single client can use multiple servers.
Uses of Servers
A client process may run on the same device. It can also connect over a network to a server to
run on a different device. Examples of servers may include database servers, mail servers,
print servers, file servers, web servers, application servers, and game servers. Most frequently
client-server systems are implemented by the request-response communication., i.e., a client
sends a request to the server. In this model, the server performs some action and sends a
response back to the client, typically with a result or acknowledgement.
Designating a computer as server-class hardware means that it is specialized for running
servers on it. This implies that it is more powerful and reliable than standard personal
computers. However large computing clusters may comprise many relatively simple,
replaceable server components.
Server Component
Together, server components are intended to offer clients functionality, resources, and/or
services. Specific components will differ based on the form factor and function of a given
server, but common components are covered here.
 Hardware: The dedicated server’s central processing unit (CPU) , memory , storage
device , network interfaces, and the server chassis are all included in this.
 Server OS: This operating system (OS) was created with a particular kind of
client/server environment in mind.
 Network Connectivity: Over a local area network (LAN) , wide area network
(WAN) , or the internet , server programs connect to the network architecture and
communicate with client devices. To offer redundancy and accommodate various
network setups, certain server form factors contain several network interfaces.
 Management and Monitoring Tools: Instruments for remote management and
performance monitoring are frequently included with servers.
 Server Software: This server software supports a particular use case. Software for
email servers, web servers, and database servers are a few examples.
  High-Availability Features: High-availability (HA) capabilities are included on
some servers to reduce downtime and guarantee continuous operation. This involves
having access to numerous storage systems, backup power supply and network
interfaces, and configuration management tools that enable automatic failover
and load balancing .

How a Server Works?

A device needs to be set up to listen for client requests across a network connection in order
to perform the role of a server. The operating system may include this functionality as an
installed application, a role, or a combination of the two.
The windows server operating system from microsoft has the capability to hear and respond
to client requests. The types of client requests the server can handle increase with additional
installed roles or services. Another illustration is when an additional application
called Apache is put on top of an operating system to handle requests from web browsers. A
client sends a request over the network whenever it needs data or functionality from a server.
The server gets this request and provides the necessary information in response. This is the
client-server networking request and response model, commonly referred to as the call and
response model.
As part of a single request and response, a server frequently completes a variety of additional
tasks, such as confirming the requestor’s identity, making sure the client has permission to
access the data or resources requested, and correctly formatting or returning the required
response in the expected manner.
Types of Servers and Their Applications
1. Application Server
These servers host web apps (computer programs that run inside a web browser) allowing
users in the network to run and use them preventing the installation of a copy on their own
computers. These servers need not be part of the World Wide Web. Their clients are
computers with a web browser.
2. Catalog Server
These servers maintain an index or table of contents of information that can be found across a
large distributed network. Distributed networks may include computers, users, files shared on
file servers, and web apps. Examples of catalog servers are directory servers and name
servers. Their clients are any computer program that needs to find something on the network.
An example can be a domain member attempting to log in, an email client looking for
an email address, or a user looking for a file
3. Communication Server
These servers maintain an environment needed for one communication endpoint to find other
endpoints and then communicate with them. These servers may or may not include a
directory of communication endpoints and a presence detection service, depending on the
openness and security parameters of the network. Their clients are communication endpoints.
4. Computing Server
These servers share vast amounts of computing resources which include CPU and random-
access memory over a network. Any computer program that needs more CPU power
and RAM than a personal computer can probably afford can use these types of servers. The
client must be a networked computer to implement the client–server model which is a
necessity.
5. Database Server
These servers maintain and share any form of database over a network. A database is an
organized collection of data with predefined properties that may be displayed in a table.
Clients of these servers are spreadsheets, accounting software, asset management software, or
virtually any computer program that consumes well-organized data, especially in large
volumes.
6. Fax Server
These servers share one or more fax machines over a network which eliminates the hassle of
physical access. Any fax sender or recipient is the client of these servers.
7. File Server
Shares files and folders, storage space to hold files and folders, or both, over a network.
Networked computers are the intended clients, even though local programs can be clients.
8. Game Server
These servers enable several computers or gaming devices to play multiplayer games.
Personal computers or gaming consoles are their clients.
9. Mail Server
These servers make email communication possible in the same way as a post office makes
snail mail communication possible. Clients of these servers are senders and recipients of
email.
10. Print Server
These servers share one or more printers over a network which eliminates the hassle of
physical access. Their clients are computers in need of printing something.
11. Proxy Server
This server acts as an intermediary between a client and a server accepting incoming traffic
from the client and sending it to the server. Reasons to use a proxy server include content
control and filtering, improving traffic performance, preventing unauthorized network access,
simply routing the traffic over a large and complex network. Their clients are any networked
computer.
12. Web Server
These servers host web pages. A web server is responsible for making the World Wide Web
possible. Each website has one or more web servers. Their clients are computers with a web
browser.
Where Are Servers Stored?
A server is stored in a closet or glass house. These areas help isolate sensitive computers and
equipment from people who should not access them.
Remote servers or the servers that are not hosted on-site are located in a data center. For these
types of servers, the hardware is managed by another company and configured remotely by
you or your company.
Why Are Servers Always On?
The servers are always on because they are commonly used to deliver services that are
constantly required, most servers are never turned off. Consequently, when servers fail, they
can cause network users and companies many problems. To alleviate these issues, servers are
commonly set up to be fault tolerant.
Can Any Computer Make A Server?
The answer is ‘Yes’. Any computer act as a server with the right software. You may install
an FTP server program on computer and share files between other computers over your
network. But, you can make your home computer a server. you have to keep some important
points in your mind:
 The computer and the related server software must be in a running mode that is
accessible at any time.
 A computer is in server mode, its resources (like bandwidth and processing) will not
allow it to do any other things.
 If the services become popular, which you are providing, a typical computer can not
be capable of handling all of the requests.

What is Network Topology?

Network topology is the way devices are connected in a network. It defines how these
components are connected and how data transfer between the network. Understanding the
different types of network topologies can help in choosing the right design for a specific
network.
There are two major categories of Network Topology i.e. Physical Network topology and
Logical Network Topology. Physical Network Topology refers to the actual structure of the
physical medium for the transmission of data. Logical network Topology refers to the
transmission of data between devices present in the network irrespective of the way devices
are connected. The structure of the network is important for the proper functioning of the
network. one must choose the most suitable topology as per their requirement.
Types of Network Topology
Below mentioned are the types of Network Topology
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology
Point to Point Topology
Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and
receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and
the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel.
Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as
links. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
Mesh Topology
 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology,
the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are
5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each
device is 4. The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then
the total number of dedicated links required to connect them is N C 2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In
Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links
required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the
devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of
devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service
providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in
military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.
Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in
nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can
be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or
RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many
popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology
Advantages of Star Topology
  If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number
of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks
where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media
Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure
Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are
required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up
to 10 Mbps.
  The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are
well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to
a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television
networks.
Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then
the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data
loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring
Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.
Ring Topology
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one
node to another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
 One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for
performing the operations.
 To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done,
the token is to be released for other stations to use.
 When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
 There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the
token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token
after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
  The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole
topology.
 Less secure.

Tree Topology
Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic
Configuration) are used.

Tree Topology
In tree topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains
the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and
then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the
central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone
fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the
distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
  It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of
the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes)
of the company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different
teams (grandchild nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy,
connected to their respective managers and departments.

Hybrid Topology
Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied
above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can
be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of
topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed
earlier.
Hybrid Topology
The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a
combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and
network devices.
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may
have a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a
switch or router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the
different rooms and offices. The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for
wireless devices. This hybrid topology allows for efficient communication between different
buildings while providing flexibility and redundancy within each building.
Why is Network Topology Important?
Network Topology is important because it defines how devices are connected and how they
communicate in the network. Here are some points that defines why network topology is
important.
 Network Performance: Upon choosing the appropriate topology as per requirement,
it helps in running the network easily and hence increases network performance.
 Network Reliability: Some topologies like Star, Mesh are reliable as if one
connection fails, they provide an alternative for that connection, hence it works as a
backup.
 Network Expansion: Chosing correct topology helps in easier expansion of Network
as it helps in adding more devices to the network without disrupting the actual
network.
 Network Security: Network Topology helps in understanding how devices are
connected and hence provides a better security to the network.

Types of Transmission Media

Transmission media refers to the physical medium through which data is transmitted from
one device to another within a network. These medium can be wired or wireless. The choice
of medium depends on factors like distance, speed, and interference. In this article, we will
discuss the transmission media. In this article we will see types of transmission media in
detail.
What is Transmission Media in Computer Networks?
A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the
channel through which data is sent from one device to another. Transmission Media is
broadly classified into the following types:
Types of Transmission Media
1. Guided Media
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
Twisted Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally,
several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted
around one another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does
not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High-speed capacity
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a special jacket
(a copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-
rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparatively faster
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive
 Bulky
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or
Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs
and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .
 It is easy to install.
 Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.
 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
 Coaxial cables support multiple channels
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cables are expensive.
 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers,
this compromises the security of the data.
Optical Fiber Cable
Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept total internal reflection of light through a core made up
of glass. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the coating. It
is used for the transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be unidirectional or
bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely
unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
Applications of Optical Fibre Cable
 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the
interior and exterior of automobiles.
Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by Robert
M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest
form of the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-frequency
waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two
layers of the ground plane which are usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.
Microstripline
A microstripline is a type of transmission media used to carry high-frequency signals,
commonly found in microwave and radio frequency circuits. It consists of a flat, narrow
conducting strip (usually made of metal) placed on top of a dielectric material (an insulating
layer), with a metal ground plane on the other side.
2. Unguided Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media . No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features of Unguided Media
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
Radio Waves
Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios
and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.
Types of Radio Waves:
 Short Wave: AM Radio
 VHF (Very High Frequency): FM Radio/TV
 UHF (Ultra High Frequency): TV
Radio Wave Components:
 Transmitter: Responsible for encoding the signal.
 Receiver: Responsible for decoding the signal.

Radiowave
Microwaves
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. Micro waves are majorly used for
mobile phone communication and television distribution.
Advanges:
 Cheaper than using cables
  Freedom from land acquisition
 Ease of communication in difficult terrains
 Communication over oceans
Disadvanges:
 Insecure communication.
 Out-of-phase signal.
 Susceptible to weather conditions.
 Bandwidth is limited.
 High cost of design, implementation, and maintenance.

Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz –
400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Difference Between Radio Waves, Micro Waves, and Infrared Waves

Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

These are These are

These are omni-
unidirectional in unidirectional in
directional in nature.
Direction nature. nature.

At low frequency, they At low frequency, they

can penetrate through can penetrate through They cannot
solid objects and walls solid objects and penetrate through
but high frequency walls. at high any solid object
they bounce off the frequency, they cannot and walls.
Penetration obstacle. penetrate.

Frequency range:
Frequency range: 3 Frequency range: 1
Frequency 300 GHz to 400
KHz to 1GHz. GHz to 300 GHz.
range GHz.

These offers poor These offers medium These offers high

Security security. security. security.

Attenuation is
Attenuation is high. Attenuation is low.
Attenuation variable.

Some frequencies in Some frequencies in There is no need

the radio-waves the microwaves of government
Government require government require government license to use these
License license to use these. license to use these. waves.

Setup and usage Cost Setup and usage Cost Usage Cost is very
Usage Cost is moderate. is high. less.

These are used in long These are used in long These are not used
distance distance in long distance
Communication communication. communication. communication.

Causes of Transmission Impairment

Transmission impairment refers to the loss or distortion of signals during data transmission,
leading to errors or reduced quality in communication. Common causes include signal
distortion, attenuation, and noise all of which can affect the clarity and reliability of
transmitted data.

Transmission Impairment
 Attenuation: It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing
distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also
known as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal
which gives the original signal back and compensate for this loss.
 Distortion: It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen
in composite signals made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component
has its own propagation speed travelling through a medium. And thats why it delay in
arriving at the final destination Every component arrive at different time which leads
to distortion. Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they had
at senders end.
 Noise: The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called
noise. There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal
noise and impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.
Factors Considered for Designing the Transmission Media
 Bandwidth: Assuming all other conditions remain constant, the greater a medium’s
bandwidth, the faster a signal’s data transmission rate.
 Transmission Impairment : Transmission Impairment occurs when the received
signal differs from the transmitted signal. Signal quality will be impacted as a result
of transmission impairment.
 Interference: Interference is defined as the process of disturbing a signal as it travels
over a communication medium with the addition of an undesired signal.
Applications of Transmission Media in Computer Networks
Transmission media in computer networks are used to connect devices and transfer data. Here
are some common applications:

Transmission Media Application

Unshielded Twisted Pair Local Area Networks (LAN), telephones

Transmission Media Application

(UTP)

Industrial networks, environments with high

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
interference

Optical Fiber Cable Long-distance communication, internet backbones

Coaxial Cable Cable TV, broadband internet, CCTV

Stripline Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs), microwave circuits

Microstripline Antennas, satellite communication, RF circuits

Wireless communication, AM/FM radio, mobile

Radio
phones

Infrared Remote controls, short-range communication

Microwave Satellite communication, radar, long-distance links

Conclusion
In conclusion, transmission media are fundamental ways for data transmission in networks,
and they are classified as directed (wired) or unguided (wireless). Guided media, such as
twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and optical fibers, provide secure, fast, and dependable
data transmission over short distances. Unguided media, such as radio waves, microwaves,
and infrared, provide wireless communication at various distances, with security
and attenuation trade-offs. The choice of transmission media is determined by bandwidth,
transmission impairment, and interference.
Transmission Media in Computer Networks
Frequently Asked Questions on Transmission Media – FAQ’s
What are three options for signal transmission on a network?
There are three common ways to send signals over a network:
 1. Electrical signals: Data is sent as electrical pulses through copper wires.
2. Optical signals: Electrical signals are changed into light pulses to carry data.
3. Wireless signals: Data is sent through the air using infrared, microwaves, or radio
waves.
Which transmission medium transmits data fastest?
Fiber optic cables transmit data fastest.
What refers to the various types of media used to carry the signal between computers?
Transmission media are the physical ways data travels from one device to another in a
network. These paths can be either wired, like cables, or wireless, using signals through the
air.
Why is optical fiber cable preferred for long-distance communication?
Optical fibre connections use light to transmit data, providing high bandwidth, minimal
signal attenuation, immunity to electromagnetic interferenc. These characteristics make them
excellent for long-distance and high-volume data transmission.
What is signal transmission?
Signal transmission is the process of transferring information from one place to another,
usually through various communication media. Signals can be electrical signals, optical
signals, radio waves, or other forms of energy. This process involves multiple components
and technologies to ensure that the signal can reach its destination accurately and efficiently.
Key concepts of signal transmission
Analog signal vs. digital signal
Analog signal: A continuously changing signal, usually used for audio and video
transmission. For example, traditional broadcast television signals and telephone voice
signals.
Digital signal: A discrete signal that uses binary (0 and 1) to represent information. For
example, computer data and digital audio signals.
Transmission media
Wired transmission: Includes copper wires (such as twisted pair, cable) and optical fiber.
Wireless transmission: Includes radio waves, microwaves, and infrared.

Modulation: The process of modifying a carrier signal to encode information. Common types
of modulation include amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase
modulation (PM).

Bandwidth: The range of frequencies that a transmission medium can carry. The higher the
bandwidth, the faster the data transmission rate.
Delay: The time delay between the sending of a signal and its reception. For real-time
applications, lower latency is very important.
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
The ratio of signal strength relative to background noise. A higher SNR indicates clearer
signal reception.
Types of signal transmission
Electrical signal transmission
Twisted pair cable: used for telephone and Ethernet networks, with anti-interference
capabilities.
Coaxial cable: used for television and broadband Internet, with high bandwidth and anti-
interference capabilities.

Optical signal transmission

Fiber optic cable: uses light to transmit data, with high bandwidth, long transmission distance
and no electromagnetic interference. Widely used in high-speed Internet and
telecommunications networks.

Wireless signal transmission

Radio waves: used for broadcasting, mobile communications and Wi-Fi.
Microwaves: used for satellite communications and long-distance wireless transmission.
Infrared: used for short-distance communications, such as TV remote controls and some
sensor devices.

Differential signal transmission

Uses a pair of signals with opposite levels to transmit data, such as RS485 and RS422
standards, which has strong anti-interference capabilities and is suitable for industrial
automation and long-distance communications.
 Comparison of analog signal vs digital signals
The following is a detailed comparison of analog signals and digital signals in terms of signal
transmission

Features Analog signal Digital signal

A continuously changing Discrete binary values, represented as square
Definition physical quantity, expressed
as a continuous waveform waves of high and low levels

Sine wave, square wave,

Waveform Square wave (sequence of 0 and 1)
triangle wave, etc.
Transmitted through cables, Transmitted through media such as cables,
Transmission
optical fibers, radio waves
method optical fibers, radio waves, etc.
and other media
Anti-interference Vulnerable to noise and
Strong anti-interference ability, insensitive to noise
capability interference
Vulnerable to interference Stable signal quality, easy to maintain integrity
Signal quality and attenuation, signal
quality is easily reduced during long-distance transmission

Repeater amplification is
Transmission
required for long-distance Stable over long distances, low bit error rate
distance
transmission
Generally low, limited by
Bandwidth Generally high, can transmit more data
frequency range
Difficult to store and Easy to store, process, copy and compress,
Storage and
process, special equipment
processing high data processing efficiency
is required

Conversion No converter is required, but Requires ADC and DAC for analog-to-digital
equipment signal processing is complex conversion and digital-to-analog conversion

Traditional telephones, radio Computer networks, digital communications,

Application
and television, audio
scenarios digital audio and video equipment
equipment, analog sensors
Directly represent physical Strong anti-interference ability, high signal
Advantages quantities in nature, simple
processing quality, easy to store and process

Disadvantages Vulnerable to interference Requires complex conversion equipment

 and distortion, unstable
long-distance transmission, and algorithms, high processing and conversion costs
complex signal processing

Analog signals are suitable for applications that directly represent natural physical quantities,
such as traditional telephones, radio and television, analog sensors, etc., but are susceptible to
interference and have poor stability in long-distance transmission.

Digital signals are suitable for modern applications such as computer networks, digital
communications, and multimedia transmission. They have strong anti-interference ability,
high signal quality, and are easy to store and process. They are suitable for occasions that
require high bandwidth and long-distance transmission.
Considerations in practical applications
Cable quality
Using high-quality transmission media such as shielded twisted pair (STP) or optical fiber
can improve the signal's anti-interference ability and transmission quality.
Terminal equipment
In some communication systems, terminal equipment (such as terminal resistors) needs to be
installed at both ends of the transmission line to reduce signal reflection and echo
interference.
Network topology
Select a suitable network topology (such as star, bus, ring) according to application
requirements to optimize the efficiency and reliability of signal transmission.
Encoding is the process of converting the data or a given sequence of characters, symbols,
alphabets etc., into a specified format, for the secured transmission of data. Decoding is the
reverse process of encoding which is to extract the information from the converted format.
Data Encoding
Encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to
represent 1s and 0s of the digital signals on the transmission link.
The common types of line encoding are Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, and Manchester.
Encoding Techniques
The data encoding technique is divided into the following types, depending upon the type of
data conversion.
 Analog data to Analog signals − The modulation techniques such as Amplitude
Modulation, Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation of analog signals, fall
under this category.
 Analog data to Digital signals − This process can be termed as digitization, which is
done by Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). Hence, it is nothing but digital modulation.
As we have already discussed, sampling and quantization are the important factors in
this. Delta Modulation gives a better output than PCM.
 Digital data to Analog signals − The modulation techniques such as Amplitude Shift
Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK), etc., fall
under this category. These will be discussed in subsequent chapters.
 Digital data to Digital signals − These are in this section. There are several ways to
map digital data to digital signals. Some of them are −
Non Return to Zero (NRZ)
NRZ Codes has 1 for High voltage level and 0 for Low voltage level. The main behavior of
NRZ codes is that the voltage level remains constant during bit interval. The end or start of a
bit will not be indicated and it will maintain the same voltage state, if the value of the
previous bit and the value of the present bit are same.
The following figure explains the concept of NRZ coding.
If the above example is considered, as there is a long sequence of constant voltage level and
the clock synchronization may be lost due to the absence of bit interval, it becomes difficult
for the receiver to differentiate between 0 and 1.
There are two variations in NRZ namely −
NRZ - L (NRZ – LEVEL)
There is a change in the polarity of the signal, only when the incoming signal changes from 1
to 0 or from 0 to 1. It is the same as NRZ, however, the first bit of the input signal should
have a change of polarity.
NRZ - I (NRZ – INVERTED)
If a 1 occurs at the incoming signal, then there occurs a transition at the beginning of the bit
interval. For a 0 at the incoming signal, there is no transition at the beginning of the bit
interval.
NRZ codes has a disadvantage that the synchronization of the transmitter clock with the
receiver clock gets completely disturbed, when there is a string of 1s and 0s. Hence, a
separate clock line needs to be provided.

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Bi-phase Encoding
The signal level is checked twice for every bit time, both initially and in the middle. Hence,
the clock rate is double the data transfer rate and thus the modulation rate is also doubled.
The clock is taken from the signal itself. The bandwidth required for this coding is greater.
There are two types of Bi-phase Encoding.
  Bi-phase Manchester
 Differential Manchester
Bi-phase Manchester
In this type of coding, the transition is done at the middle of the bit-interval. The transition
for the resultant pulse is from High to Low in the middle of the interval, for the input bit 1.
While the transition is from Low to High for the input bit 0.
Differential Manchester
In this type of coding, there always occurs a transition in the middle of the bit interval. If
there occurs a transition at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 0. If no
transition occurs at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 1.
The following figure illustrates the waveforms of NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Bi-phase Manchester and
Differential Manchester coding for different digital inputs.

Block Coding
Among the types of block coding, the famous ones are 4B/5B encoding and 8B/6T encoding.
The number of bits are processed in different manners, in both of these processes.
4B/5B Encoding
In Manchester encoding, to send the data, the clocks with double speed is required rather than
NRZ coding. Here, as the name implies, 4 bits of code is mapped with 5 bits, with a
minimum number of 1 bits in the group.
The clock synchronization problem in NRZ-I encoding is avoided by assigning an equivalent
word of 5 bits in the place of each block of 4 consecutive bits. These 5-bit words are
predetermined in a dictionary.
The basic idea of selecting a 5-bit code is that, it should have one leading 0 and it should
have no more than two trailing 0s. Hence, these words are chosen such that two
transactions take place per block of bits.
8B/6T Encoding
We have used two voltage levels to send a single bit over a single signal. But if we use more
than 3 voltage levels, we can send more bits per signal.
For example, if 6 voltage levels are used to represent 8 bits on a single signal, then such
encoding is termed as 8B/6T encoding. Hence in this method, we have as many as 729 (3^6)
combinations for signal and 256 (2^8) combinations for bits.
These are the techniques mostly used for converting digital data into digital signals by
compressing or coding them for reliable transmission of data.

Performance of a Network
The performance of a network pertains to the measure of service quality of a network as
perceived by the user. There are different ways to measure the performance of a network,
depending upon the nature and design of the network. Finding the performance of a network
depends on both quality of the network and the quantity of the network.
Parameters for Measuring Network Performance
 Bandwidth
 Latency (Delay)
 Bandwidth – Delay Product
 Throughput
 Jitter
BANDWIDTH
One of the most essential conditions of a website’s performance is the amount of bandwidth
allocated to the network. Bandwidth determines how rapidly the webserver is able to upload
the requested information. While there are different factors to consider with respect to a site’s
performance, bandwidth is every now and again the restricting element.
Bandwidth is characterized as the measure of data or information that can be transmitted in a
fixed measure of time. The term can be used in two different contexts with two distinctive
estimating values. In the case of digital devices, the bandwidth is measured in bits per
second(bps) or bytes per second. In the case of analog devices, the bandwidth is measured in
cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz).
Bandwidth is only one component of what an individual sees as the speed of a network.
People frequently mistake bandwidth with internet speed in light of the fact that Internet
Service Providers (ISPs) tend to claim that they have a fast “40Mbps connection” in their
advertising campaigns. True internet speed is actually the amount of data you receive every
second and that has a lot to do with latency too. “Bandwidth” means “Capacity” and
“Speed” means “Transfer rate”.
More bandwidth does not mean more speed. Let us take a case where we have double the
width of the tap pipe, but the water rate is still the same as it was when the tap pipe was half
the width. Hence, there will be no improvement in speed. When we consider WAN links, we
mostly mean bandwidth but when we consider LAN, we mostly mean speed. This is on the
grounds that we are generally constrained by expensive cable bandwidth over WAN rather
than hardware and interface data transfer rates (or speed) over LAN.
 Bandwidth in Hertz: It is the range of frequencies contained in a composite signal or
the range of frequencies a channel can pass. For example, let us consider the
bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line as 4 kHz.
 Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds: It refers to the number of bits per second that a
channel, a link, or rather a network can transmit. For example, we can say the
bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network is a maximum of 100 Mbps, which means that
the network can send 100 Mbps of data.
Note: There exists an explicit relationship between the bandwidth in hertz and the bandwidth
in bits per second. An increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth in bits
per second. The relationship depends upon whether we have baseband transmission or
transmission with modulation.
LATENCY
In a network, during the process of data communication, latency(also known as delay) is
defined as the total time taken for a complete message to arrive at the destination, starting
with the time when the first bit of the message is sent out from the source and ending with the
time when the last bit of the message is delivered at the destination. The network connections
where small delays occur are called “Low-Latency-Networks” and the network connections
which suffer from long delays are known as “High-Latency-Networks”.
High latency leads to the creation of bottlenecks in any network communication. It stops the
data from taking full advantage of the network pipe and conclusively decreases the
bandwidth of the communicating network. The effect of the latency on a network’s
bandwidth can be temporary or never-ending depending on the source of the delays. Latency
is also known as a ping rate and is measured in milliseconds(ms).
 In simpler terms latency may be defined as the time required to successfully send a
packet across a network.
 It is measured in many ways like a round trip, one-way, etc.
 It might be affected by any component in the chain utilized to vehiculate data, like
workstations, WAN links, routers, LAN, and servers, and eventually may be limited
for large networks, by the speed of light.
Latency = Propagation Time + Transmission Time + Queuing Time + Processing Delay
Propagation Time
It is the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the destination. Propagation time
can be calculated as the ratio between the link length (distance) and the propagation speed
over the communicating medium. For example, for an electric signal, propagation time is the
time taken for the signal to travel through a wire.
Propagation time = Distance / Propagation speed
Example:
Input: What will be the propagation time when the distance between two points is 12, 000
km?
Assuming the propagation speed to be 2.4 * 10^8 m/s in cable.

Output: We can calculate the propagation time as-

Propagation time = (12000 * 10000) / (2.4 * 10^8) = 50 ms
Transmission Time
Transmission Time is a time based on how long it takes to send the signal down the
transmission line. It consists of time costs for an EM signal to propagate from one side to the
other, or costs like the training signals that are usually put on the front of a packet by the
sender, which helps the receiver synchronize clocks. The transmission time of a message
relies upon the size of the message and the bandwidth of the channel.
Transmission time = Message size / Bandwidth
Example:
Input: What will be the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte
message when the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assuming the distance between
sender and receiver is 12, 000 km and speed of light is 2.4 * 10^8 m/s.

Output: We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as-

Propagation time = (12000 * 10000) / (2.4 * 10^8) = 50 ms
Transmission time = (2560 * 8) / 10^9 = 0.020 ms

Note: Since the message is short and the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the
propagation time and not the transmission time(which can be ignored).
Queuing Time
Queuing time is a time based on how long the packet has to sit around in the router. Quite
frequently the wire is busy, so we are not able to transmit a packet immediately. The queuing
time is usually not a fixed factor, hence it changes with the load thrust in the network. In
cases like these, the packet sits waiting, ready to go, in a queue. These delays are
predominantly characterized by the measure of traffic on the system. The more the traffic, the
more likely a packet is stuck in the queue, just sitting in the memory, waiting.
Processing Delay
Processing delay is the delay based on how long it takes the router to figure out where to send
the packet. As soon as the router finds it out, it will queue the packet for transmission. These
costs are predominantly based on the complexity of the protocol. The router must decipher
enough of the packet to make sense of which queue to put the packet in. Typically the lower-
level layers of the stack have simpler protocols. If a router does not know which physical port
to send the packet to, it will send it to all the ports, queuing the packet in many queues
immediately. Differently, at a higher level, like in IP protocols, the processing may include
making an ARP request to find out the physical address of the destination before queuing the
packet for transmission. This situation may also be considered as a processing delay.
BANDWIDTH – DELAY PRODUCT
Bandwidth and Delay are two performance measurements of a link. However, what is
significant in data communications is the product of the two, the bandwidth-delay
product. Let us take two hypothetical cases as examples.
Case 1: Assume a link is of bandwidth 1bps and the delay of the link is 5s. Let us find the
bandwidth-delay product in this case. From the image, we can say that this product 1 x 5 is
the maximum number of bits that can fill the link. There can be close to 5 bits at any time on
the link.
Bandwidth Delay Product
Case 2: Assume a link is of bandwidth 3bps. From the image, we can say that there can be a
maximum of 3 x 5 = 15 bits on the line. The reason is that, at each second, there are 3 bits on
the line and the duration of each bit is 0.33s.

Bandwidth Delay
For both examples, the product of bandwidth and delay is the number of bits that can fill the
link. This estimation is significant in the event that we have to send data in bursts and wait
for the acknowledgment of each burst before sending the following one. To utilize the
maximum ability of the link, we have to make the size of our burst twice the product of
bandwidth and delay. Also, we need to fill up the full-duplex channel. The sender ought to
send a burst of data of (2*bandwidth*delay) bits. The sender at that point waits for the
receiver’s acknowledgement for part of the burst before sending another burst. The amount:
2*bandwidth*delay is the number of bits that can be in transition at any time.
THROUGHPUT
Throughput is the number of messages successfully transmitted per unit time. It is controlled
by available bandwidth, the available signal-to-noise ratio, and hardware limitations. The
maximum throughput of a network may be consequently higher than the actual throughput
achieved in everyday consumption. The terms ‘throughput’ and ‘bandwidth’ are often thought
of as the same, yet they are different. Bandwidth is the potential measurement of a link,
whereas throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send data.
Throughput is measured by tabulating the amount of data transferred between multiple
locations during a specific period of time, usually resulting in the unit of bits per second(bps),
which has evolved to bytes per second(Bps), kilobytes per second(KBps), megabytes per
second(MBps) and gigabytes per second(Gbps). Throughput may be affected by numerous
factors, such as the hindrance of the underlying analog physical medium, the available
processing power of the system components, and end-user behavior. When numerous
protocol expenses are taken into account, the use rate of the transferred data can be
significantly lower than the maximum achievable throughput.
Let us consider: A highway that has a capacity of moving, say, 200 vehicles at a time. But at
a random time, someone notices only, say, 150 vehicles moving through it due to some
congestion on the road. As a result, the capacity is likely to be 200 vehicles per unit time and
the throughput is 150 vehicles at a time.
Example:
Input: A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12, 000 frames
per minute where each frame carries an average of 10, 000 bits. What will be the
throughput for this network?

Output: We can calculate the throughput as-

Throughput = (12, 000 x 10, 000) / 60 = 2 Mbps
The throughput is nearly equal to one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.
For more, refer to the Difference between Bandwidth and Throughput.
JITTER
Jitter is another performance issue related to the delay. In technical terms, jitter is a “packet
delay variance”. It can simply mean that jitter is considered a problem when different packets
of data face different delays in a network and the data at the receiver application is time-
sensitive, i.e. audio or video data. Jitter is measured in milliseconds(ms). It is defined as an
interference in the normal order of sending data packets. For example: if the delay for the
first packet is 10 ms, for the second is 35 ms, and for the third is 50 ms, then the real-time
destination application that uses the packets experiences jitter.
Simply, a jitter is any deviation in or displacement of, the signal pulses in a high-frequency
digital signal. The deviation can be in connection with the amplitude, the width of the signal
pulse, or the phase timing. The major causes of jitter are electromagnetic interference(EMI)
and crosstalk between signals. Jitter can lead to the flickering of a display screen, affects the
capability of a processor in a desktop or server to proceed as expected, introduce clicks or
other undesired impacts in audio signals, and loss of transmitted data between network
devices.
Jitter is harmful and causes network congestion and packet loss.
  Congestion is like a traffic jam on the highway. Cars cannot move forward at a
reasonable speed in a traffic jam. Like a traffic jam, in congestion, all the packets
come to a junction at the same time. Nothing can get loaded.
 The second negative effect is packet loss. When packets arrive at unexpected
intervals, the receiving system is not able to process the information, which leads to
missing information also called “packet loss”. This has negative effects on video
viewing. If a video becomes pixelated and is skipping, the network is experiencing a
jitter. The result of the jitter is packet loss. When you are playing a game online, the
effect of packet loss can be that a player begins moving around on the screen
randomly. Even worse, the game goes from one scene to the next, skipping over part
of the gameplay.

Jitter
In the above image, it can be noticed that the time it takes for packets to be sent is not the
same as the time in which they will arrive at the receiver side. One of the packets faces an
unexpected delay on its way and is received after the expected time. This is jitter.
A jitter buffer can reduce the effects of jitter, either in a network, on a router or switch, or on
a computer. The system at the destination receiving the network packets usually receives
them from the buffer and not from the source system directly. Each packet is fed out of the
buffer at a regular rate. Another approach to diminish jitter in case of multiple paths for traffic
is to selectively route traffic along the most stable paths or to always pick the path that can
come closest to the targeted packet delivery rate.
Factors Affecting Network Performance
Below mentioned are the factors that affect the network performance.
 Network Infrastrucutre
 Applications used in the Network
 Network Issues
 Network Security
Network Infrastructure
Network Infrastructure is one of the factors that affect network performance. Network
Infrastructure consists of routers, switches services of a network like IP Addressing, wireless
protocols, etc., and these factors directly affect the performance of the network.
Applications Used in the Network
Applications that are used in the Network can also have an impact on the performance of the
network as some applications that have poor performance can take large bandwidth, for more
complicated applications, its maintenance is also important and therefore it impacts the
performance of the network.
Network Issues
Network Issue is a factor in Network Performance as the flaws or loopholes in these issues
can lead to many systemic issues. Hardware issues can also impact the performance of the
network.
Network Security
Network Security provides privacy, data integrity, etc. Performance can be influenced by
taking network bandwidth which has the work of managing the scanning of devices,
encryption of data, etc. But these cases negatively influence the network.
FAQs
1. How is the network performance measured?
Answer:
Network Performance is measured in two ways: Bandwidth and Latency.
2. What are the parameters to measure network performance?
Answer:
There are five parameters to measure network performance.
 Bandwidth
 Throughput
 Latency
 Bandwidth Delay
 Jitter

Transmission Impairments
Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from the transmitted
signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitted as Analog signal or it can be transmitted as a
digital signal.
In Analog signals due to transmission impairment the resulting received signal gets different
amplitude or the shape. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the receiver side we get
changes in bits (0's or 1's).
Causes of Transmission Impairments
There are various causes of transmission impairments −
 Noise
 Distortion
 Attenuation

 Noise
 Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion as any
unwanted signal gets added to the transmitted signal by which the
resulting transmitted signal gets modified and at the receiver side it is
difficult to remove the unwanted noise signal. These noises are various
kinds like shot noise, impulse noise, thermal noise etc.
 Noise is diagrammatically represented as follows −


 Distortion
 This kind of distortion is mainly appearing in case of composite signals
in which a composite signal has various frequency components in it
and each frequency component has some time constraint which makes
a complete signal.
 But while transmitting this composite signal, if a certain delay happens
between the frequencies components, then there may be the chance
that the frequency component will reach the receiver end with a
different delay constraint from its original which leads to the change in
shape of the signal. The delay happens due to environmental
parameters or from the distance between transmitter and receiver etc.
 Distortion is diagrammatically represented as follows −


 Attenuation
 Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the
received signal will be difficult to receive at the receiver end. This
attenuation happens due to the majority factor by environment as
environment imposes a lot of resistance and the signal strength
decreases as it tries to overcome the resistance imposed.

 The above picture shows that the signal loses power at its travels time.
 Attenuation is diagrammatically represented as follows –
Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching
technique will decide the best route for data transmission.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.
Classification Of Switching Techniques
Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between
sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice,
video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect
Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:
Space Division Switches:
o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single
transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set of
crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar
switch is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled
by a control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx
crossbar switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking switches.
Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:
o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch
Crossbar Switch
The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar switch
has n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.
Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:
The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased. Therefore, it
becomes very expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to use a multistage switch.
Multistage Switch
o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller units and
then interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.
 o It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data
transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data
can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required
for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred,
then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred
even if the channel is free.

Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a
complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path
between the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node.
This type of network is known as store and forward network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

 o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the
nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it
supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to
store the messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the
message switching technique.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go,
but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will
be sent.
Approaches Of Packet Switching:
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:
o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is
considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the
destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the correct
destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Virtual Circuit Switching
o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between
sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the
nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the
sender and receiver.
 o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the
message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.

Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach

Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing decisions to forward the

Node does not take any routing decision.
packets.

Congestion cannot occur as all the packets travel Congestion can occur when the node is busy, and
in different directions. it does not allow other packets to pass through.

It is more flexible as all the packets are treated as

It is not very flexible.
an independent entity.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require
massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent.
Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective
technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the
Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any
established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth very
efficiently.
Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:
o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require
low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires
high implementation cost.
 o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.

Multiplexing (Channel Sharing) in Computer Network

Last Updated : 22 Apr, 2024


Multiplexing means multiple sources but one link. An alternative approach is a Direct point-
to-point connection, but it has several problems as it requires an I/O port for each device, a
need line for each device, and also a large amount of wiring needed if on different floors.
Instead, if we use a multiplexer approach then all devices are connected to MUX and one line
to the host, the link carries multiple channels of information and several lines equal to the
number of lines out.
Why Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which multiple
signals coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a single
communication/physical line. Multiplexing in computer networks is done using a device
Multiplexer called MUX that takes ‘n’ input lines to generate a single output line. On the
other hand, there is a device called DEMUX(Demultiplexer) that takes a single input line and
generates ‘n’ output lines.

Multiplexing
The ‘n’ input lines shown above are transmitted via a multiplexer and it combines the signals
to form a composite signal. Now, these signals are passed through DEMUX and it transfers
those signals to their respective destinations.
Types of Multiplexing in Computer Networks
Multiplexing can be classified as:
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
  Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Types of Multiplexer
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
The frequency spectrum is divided among the logical channels and each user has exclusive
access to his channel. It sends signals in several distinct frequency ranges and carries multiple
video channels on a single cable. Each signal is modulated onto a different carrier frequency
and carrier frequencies are separated by guard bands. The bandwidth of the transmission
medium exceeds the required bandwidth of all the signals. Usually, for frequency division
multiplexing analog signaling is used in order to transmit the signals, i.e. more susceptible to
noise. Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to each user or signal on a medium.
Thus, all signals are transmitted at the same time, each using different frequencies.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

The multiplexer is attached to the high-speed communication line. The frequency spectrum is
divided up among the logical channels where each user hangs onto a particular frequency.
The radio spectrum is an example of the media and the mechanism for extracting information
from the medium.
Advantages of FDM
 The process is simple and easy to modulate.
 A corresponding multiplexer or de-multiplexer is on the end of the high-speed line
and separates the multiplexed signals.
 For frequency division multiplexing analog signaling is used in order to transmit the
signals.
Disadvantages of FDM
 One problem with FDM is that it cannot utilize the full capacity of the cable.
 It is important that the frequency bands do not overlap.
 There must be a considerable gap between the frequency bands in order to ensure that
signals from one band do not affect signals in another band.
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Each user periodically gets the entire bandwidth for a small burst of time, i.e. entire channel
is dedicated to one user but only for a short period of time. It is very extensively used in
computer communication and telecommunication. Sharing of the channel is accomplished by
dividing available transmission time on a medium among users. It exclusively uses Digital
Signaling instead of dividing the cable into frequency bands. TDM splits cable usage into
time slots. The data rate of transmission media exceeds the data rate of signals. Uses a frame
and one slot for each slice of time and the time slots are transmitted whether the source has
data or not.
Time Division Multiplexing
There are two types of TDMs which are as follows:
1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
2. Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
3. Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing
4. Interleaving Time Division Multiplexing
Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing: It is synchronous because the multiplexer and
the de-multiplexer have to agree on the time slots. The original time-division multiplexing.
The multiplexer accepts input from attached devices in a round-robin fashion and transmits
the data in a never-ending pattern. Some common examples of this are T-1 and ISDN
telephone lines. If one device generates data at a faster rate than other devices, then the
multiplexor must either sample the incoming data stream from that device more often than it
samples the other devices or buffers the faster incoming stream. If a device has nothing to
transmit, the multiplexor must still insert a piece of data from that device into the multiplexed
stream.

Synchronous TDM
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing: It is a time-division but on-demand rather than
fixed, rescheduling links on a per-packet basis and packets from different sources interleaved
on the link. It allows the connection of more nodes to the circuit than the capacity of the
circuit. Works on the premise that not all the nodes will transmit at full capacity at all times.
It must transmit a terminal identification i.e destination id no. and may require storage. A
statistical multiplexer transmits only the data from active workstations. If a workstation is not
active, no space is wasted on the multiplexed stream. It accepts the incoming data streams
and creates a frame containing only the data to be transmitted.

Statistical TDM
Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing: It is a type of multiplexing, where the rate of
sampling is different and also does not require a general clock, it is called Asynchronous
Time Division Multiplexing. Asynchronous TDMs have generally low bandwidth. In case
when there is nothing to transmit, this type of TDM gives its time slot to other devices.
Interleaving Time Division Multiplexing: Interleaving TDM can be taken as two switches
rotating at high speed, one on the multiplexing and the other on the demultiplexing surface.
These switches can also be rotated in the reverse direction. At once, when it leaves the
surface of multiplexing and releases at the surface of de-multiplexer, it is called Interleaving.
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing(WDM)
It is the same as FDM but applied to fibers, only the difference is that here the operating
frequencies are much higher actually they are in the optical range. There’s great potential for
fibers since the bandwidth is so huge. Fibers with different energy bands are passed through a
diffraction grating prism. Combined on the long-distance link and then split at the
destination. It has got high reliability and very high capacity.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing(WDM)

It multiplexes multiple data streams onto a single fiber optic line. Different wavelength
lasers(called lambdas) transmit multiple signals. Each signal carried on the fiber can be
transmitted at a different rate from the other signals.
 Dense wavelength division multiplexing: It combines many (30, 40, 50, or more)
channels onto one fiber. DWDM channels have a very high capacity and it keeps on
improving.
 Coarse wavelength division multiplexing: It combines only a few lambdas. In this,
channels are more widely spaced and are a cheaper version of DWDM.
Some Other Types of Multiplexing
There are some more types of multiplexing that are discussed here.
1. Code Division Multiplexing
It is a type of multiplexing where each code is distributed among different spectrums so that
each one of them can work at the same time simultaneously. It is also called Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA). CDMA makes use of spectrum technology along with analog-to-
digital conversion(ADC). It is thus used by various radio communication technologies.
Mainly, it is used for mobile communication.
Advantages of Code Division Multiplexing
 It provides enhanced data communication capabilities.
  It does not compress the bandwidth of other frequencies.
2. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a digital communication technique
initially developed for use in cable television systems. OFDM is similar to the broadcasting
technique known as frequency division multiplexing (also known as FDM), which uses a
multitude of transmitters and receivers to send information on different frequencies over a
single wire, such as an electrical power cable.

OFDM vs FDM
Uses of OFDM
 OFDM is used in Digital radio, Digital Radio Mondiale, digital audio broadcasting,
and satellite radio.
 OFDM is used in Wired data transmission.
3. Space Division Multiplexing
Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) is the combination of Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). It basically means that a particular channel
is used against a particular frequency band for some time.
Advantages of Space Division Multiplexing
 It provides a high data transmission rate.
 Some Passive Optical Network (POV) implementations use SDM.
Advantages of Multiplexing
 Multiplexing allows the efficient usage of computer resources.
 Multiplexing is Cost effective
 Frequency Divison Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
 Time Division Multiplexing is used for Fair Resource Allocation that is each device is
allocated a specific time band for their transmission.
 Code Division Multiplexing is used to increase the security so that only authorized
user can access data.
 Multiplexing also provide scalability.
Disadvantage of Multiplexing
 It increase the complexity of the system
 There is a problem of SPoF(Single Point of Failure) that means if there is failure in
singel point than the entire system become fails.
 This is not fault tolerant.